Pumping Machinery. 



A PRACTICAL HAND-BOOK 



RELATING TO THE 



CONSTRUCTION AND MANAGEMENT 



OF 



STEAM AND POWER PUMPING MACHINES. 



BY / 

WILLIAM M. BARR, 

MEMBER AMERICAN SOCIETY MECHANICAL ENGINEERS. 



WITH UPWARDS OF TWO HUNDRED AND SIXTY ENGRAVINGS, COV- 
ERING EVERY ESSENTIAL DETAIL IN PUMP CONSTRUCTION. 



nioSvM 



PHILADELPHIA : 

J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY. 
1893. 



- 



Copyright, 1893, 

BY 

William M. Barr. 



A 




\ 






Printed by J. B. Lippincott Company, Philadelphia, U. S. A. 



PREFACE. 



The author has long felt the need, for his personal use, of 
a book similar to the one he now publishes, and had there 
been available a work covering approximately the same 
ground as the one now offered, the preparation of this 
volume would not have been undertaken. No apology is 
thought to be necessary for its appearance at this time, for, so 
far as I am aware, no other book similar in scope has been 
published in this country. 

This book, as will be seen upon examination, is essentially 
descriptive of pump detail ; no attempt has been made to 
enter into the theory and mathematics of pump-construction. 
The number of leading pump-makers in this country is com- 
paratively few, and such are well equipped for the designing 
and building of pumping machinery ; but there is another 
and larger body, comprising engineers, architects, contractors, 
plumbers, etc., who have occasion to recommend and use 
pumping machinery, and who wish to inform themselves 
regarding pump construction, — it is for the benefit of this lat- 
ter class that this volume has been prepared. This book 
being largely descriptive, its illustrations have been made a 
prominent feature, the writer regarding a single suggestive 
sketch of more real value than a page of reading-matter. 

With few exceptions, the illustrations are from pumping 
machinery actually constructed and in use, and those familiar 
with the author's work will not fail to recognize how large a 
proportion of the whole has been transferred directly from his 
own practice. Inasmuch as a large portion of this book has 
been in constant use by the writer for years, it is believed that 
in its present convenient form it will prove valuable, or at least 
suggestive, to others also. In addition to my own experience, 

3 



4 PRE FA CE. 

I have been particularly fortunate in having the friendly advice 
and co-operation of other engineers well known as successful 
designers of pumping machinery; these have contributed much 
valuable information, accompanied by drawings, here repro- 
duced. Interesting and valuable extracts have also been made 
from foreign publications not generally accessible except in the 
larger cities. 

Chapters XIII. and XVII. were originally intended to be 
added to this volume as an appendix, but are now incorporated 
with it for the following reasons : 

The specifications of the Underwriters' pump are so valu- 
able and complete that they ought not to be omitted, and 
to this end the chapter on duplex pumps was purposely 
abridged that the two might not parallel each other. The 
design and construction of duplex pumps has engaged almost 
the whole attention of the writer for many years, and it was 
with some hesitancy that he relinquished his own subject- 
matter for the insertion of what might be regarded as an 
Underwriters' circular ; however that may be, the fact remains 
that it is a valuable contribution to the literature of the subject, 
and well worth the space given it. 

The first part of the chapter on duty-trials is an abstract of 
an accepted report of the Duty-Trial Committee of the Ameri- 
can Society of Mechanical Engineers, replacing my rewritten 
lecture on that subject delivered before the Franklin Institute. 
The substitution of the committee's report for my own subject- 
matter is in deference to the excellence of the committee's 
work, and to contribute to the earnest desire that for the sake 
of comparison and uniformity of records it should receive the 
support of the Society's membership. 

The merit of a hand-book like this consists largely in the 
judicious selection and arrangement of its contents rather than 
upon strict originality, so that whatever selections have been 
useful to the writer he now transfers to the reader with the 
added results of his experience. 

William M. Barr. 

Philadelphia, January, 1893. 



CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER PAGE 

I. — Introduction 7 

II. — Water-Pistons and Plungers 15 

III. — Piston- and Plunger-Rods 37 

IV. — Water- Valves and Seats 47 

V. — Air- and Vacuum-Chambers 90 

VI. — Suction- and Delivery- Pipes 98 

VII. — Water-End Design 126 

VIII. — Hydraulic-Pressure Pumps 152 

IX. — Steam and Power Crank-Pumps 173 

X. — Direct- Acting Steam-Pumps 200 

XI. — The Duplex Pump 226 

XII. — Compound Direct-Acting Steam-Pumps 235 

XIII. — Fire-Pumps 271 

XIV. — Mining-Pumps 289 

XV. — Rotary Pumps 325 

XVI. — Centrifugal Pumps 334 

XVII. — Duty-Trials of Pumping Engines 361 

XVIII. — High-Duty Pumping Enginfs — Direct-Acting 387 

XIX. — High-Duty Pumping Engines — Fly-Wheel 411 



PUMPING MACHINERY. 



CHAPTER I. 



INTRODUCTION. 



The art of raising water must of necessity have been one 
of the first of the mechanic arts to engage the attention of 
man, for no progress in civilization can be had without a con- 
venient and ample supply of good and wholesome water. 
The earliest water-supply must have been the permanent 
springs and water-courses ; but the growth of population, the 
increase in wealth, and a higher civilization required a broader 
development of the land, and it was during this period of de- 
velopment that the ingenuity of man was exercised in origi- 
nating schemes and appliances for the lifting and distribution 
of water ; but of the origin and early history of this art we 
know nothing. 

It is not probable that any satisfactory device for raising 
water is lost to us, although its history has long since been 
forgotten, the fact of utility has been the very means of its 
preservation ; nor did the great invasions and conquests of the 
ancient world affect unfavorably the development of this useful 
art, for water was alike essential to the conqueror and the con- 
quered. 

Machines for raising water admit of a great variety of 
forms, all depending upon the conditions of supply and 
delivery. The sources of supply are usually streams and 
wells ; the ordinary delivery ranges from the simple lifting for 
irrigation to that of high service water-supply for cities. 

7 



8 



PUMPING MACHINERY. 



A water-elevator has been denned (Knight) as a device for 
raising buckets from wells, and a pump as a device for lifting 
water by the motion of a piston in a cylinder. 

Among the more important water-elevators are the fol- 
lowing" : 



Archimedian screw, 

Baling-machine, 

Bascule, 

Bucket-wheel, 

Chapelet, 

Dutch scoop, 

Ejector, 

Flash-wheel, 

Flush-wheel, 

Hydraulic belt, 

Hydraulic ram, 

Jantu, 



Mental, 

Noria, 

Persian-wheel, 

Picotah, 

Scoop, 

Scoop-wheel, 

Shaduf, 

Swape, 

Turbine, 

Tympanum, 

Water-screw. 



A partial list of pumps will include the following : 



Bellows-pump, 

Centrifugal, 

Chain, 

Chapelet, 

Diaphragm-plunger, 

Draining-pump, 

Eccentric, 

Ejector, 

Elastic-piston, 

Hydrapult, 

Injector, 

Pendulum, 



Piston, 

Plunger, 

Rope, 

Rotary, 

Spiral, 

Steam jet pump, 

Steam-vacuum pump, 

Syringe, 

Vacuum, 

Water-ram, 

Water-screw, 

Water-snail. 



By reason of the limited scope of the present work it will 
be impossible to illustrate and describe so formidable an array 
of water-raising machines included in the partial lists given 
above. The reader is referred to Knight's " Mechanical Dic- 
tionary" for definitions, and especially to Ewbank's u Hy- 



IXTRODUCTION. 9 

draulics" for illustrations, description, and history of early 
and curious water-raising devices. 

Atmospheric Pressure.— It must not be inferred that the 
ancients were unacquainted with the physical properties of 
the atmosphere, and that they did not take it into account 
in the development of their hydraulic machines. There is 
every reason to believe that they understood and applied 
certain principles relating to the atmosphere ; for example, the 
ancient Egyptians understood and used the siphon at least 
fourteen hundred and fifty years before the Christian era, 
which clearly indicates that they were acquainted with some 
facts regarding the expansibility, as well as the compressibility, 
of the air ; but this was only a partial knowledge, for it is not 
clear that the exact data regarding atmospheric pressure were 
known until the middle of the seventeenth century. So also 
the suspension of a liquid in inverted vessels by the atmos- 
phere, such as the atmospheric sprinkling-pot, was known in 
the earliest historic times, or, at least, was well known in the 
fifteenth century B.C. 

The Syringe. — Few ancient devices could be pointed out 
that have given rise to more important improvements in the 
arts than the primitive syringe. Its modifications exert an 
extensive and beneficial influence in society. As a piston- 
bellows it is still extensively used in Oriental smitheries. It 
may be considered as the immediate parent of the forcing 
if not of the atmospheric pump, in both of which it has 
greatly increased the comforts and conveniences of civilized 
life. 

Suction is a word which has come down to us from a vast 
antiquity. The operation of sucking, as in the case of an 
infant, the sucking of poison from a wounded part by the 
application of the lips, are well-known illustrations. So also 
the raising of a liquid through a tube into the mouth. This 
operation has long been known as suction, and it was formerly 



10 PUMPING MACHINERY. 

believed that it was effected by some power or faculty of the 
mouth independently of any other influence. 

Suction is simply a term used to denote the absence or the 
removal of the atmosphere, so as to permit the flow of the 
liquid; suction does not. raise the liquid, nor does it help to 
raise it. The term sucker for the valve attached to the pump- 
rod in an ordinary lift-pump no doubt had its origin in the 
fancied similarity of its action as compared with that of the 
mouth. 

An atmospheric pump is merely a contrivance placed at 
the upper end of a pipe to remove the pressure of the atmos- 
phere there, while it is left free to act on the liquid in which 
the lower end is immersed. It is immaterial what the sub- 
stance of the machine is, or what figure it is made to assume, 
for any device by which air can be removed from the interior 
of a vessel is or may be used as a pump to raise water ; there 
will be required, however, two valves, one opening upwards 
and placed in any part of the pipe or in the machine itself, to 
allow the water to pass up through it, but none to descend ; 
the other valve placed over an aperture opening outwards, 
through which the contents of the vessel can be discharged, 
and at the same time prevent the entrance of external air. Just 
how long it took the earlier inventors to determine the " limit 
of suction" is not known, but the exact weight or pressure of 
the atmosphere was not authoritatively announced until after 
the experiments of Torricelli, in 1608, and subsequently con- 
firmed by Pascal forty years later. The fact was then fully 
established that an atmospheric pump must be placed within 
twenty-six or twenty-eight feet of the surface of the water to 
be lifted; but, owing to the difficulty in getting tight joints in 
the suction-pipe, this distance was gradually shortened until 
twenty-two to twenty-five feet was regarded as the practical 
or ordinary limit of suction. 

Ewbank records a singular incident of a tinman of Seville, 
who undertook to raise water from a well sixty feet deep by 
a common pump. Instead of making the sucker play within 



INTR OD UCTION. 1 1 

thirty feet of the water, he made the rod so short that it did 
not reach within fifty feet of it. As a necessary consequence 
he could not raise any. Being greatly disappointed, he de- 
scended the well to examine the pipe, while a person above 
was employed in working the pump ; and at last, in a fit of 
despair at his want of success, he dashed the hatchet or ham- 
mer in his hand violently against the pipe. By this act a small 
opening was made in the pipe about ten feet above the water, 
when, what must have been his surprise ! the water instantly 
ascended, and was discharged at the spout. 

This fact being published (1776) led to a reinvestigation of 
the subject, and instead of overthrowing the received doctrine 
of atmospheric pressure, more fully confirmed it. It was ascer- 
tained that the air on entering the pipe became mixed with 
water, and which, therefore, instead of being carried up in an 
unbroken column, was raised in disjointed portions, or in the 
form of thick rain. This mixture being much lighter than 
water alone, a longer column of it could be supported by the 
atmosphere ; and by proportioning the quantity of air admitted, 
a column of the compound fluid may be elevated one hundred 
or two hundred feet by the atmospheric pump. 

CLASSIFICATION OF PUMPS. 

The easy and natural classification of pumps would be to 
divide them into three classes : 

I. Lift-pumps, ^ reciprocating 

II. Force-pumps, V or 

III. Lift- and force-pumps, J rotary. 

These may again be sub-classified into — 

Single-acting pumps, 
Double-acting pumps. 

And still further into — 

Vertical pumps, 
Horizontal pumps. 



12 PUMPING MACHINERY. 

If pumps be classified according to their details of construc- 
tion, the list would be still further extended into — 

Bucket-pumps, 

Piston-pumps, 

Plunger-pumps, 

Bucket- and plunger-pumps, 

Bucket- and piston-pumps, 

Piston- and plunger-pumps (known as the differential 

plunger-pump), 
Rotary pumps, 
Centrifugal pumps. 

These names indicate a particular form of construction, and 
not a new or distinct classification, for each of these latter 
pumps must necessarily be included in the former. This latter 
classification is a convenient one, and has been adopted by the 
writer for his present use. It may be said that it is not an 
exact or scientific arrangement, — this much is admitted at the 
outset, — but it is the commercial one, and, therefore, in the 
direct line of every-day use. 

The increasing subdivision in business enterprises, and the 
growing importance of pumping machinery as a part of the 
plant, would seem to call for another classification of pumps 
adapted for special uses ; for example, acids, alkalies, ammonia, 
beer, bilge-water, bleacheries, breweries, dye-works, drainage, 
fire-pumps, gas-works, etc. A mere catalogue of names, with 
suggestions regarding suitable pumping machinery for each, 
would occupy more space than could be given it in the pres- 
ent work, and it is doubtful even then if such a presentation 
would prove satisfactory because of the repetitions which must 
inevitably occur. 

Pumps for General Service. — There is no subject in 
which it is so difficult to give advice in a general way as in 
pumping machinery, because each pumping plant has its own 
special peculiarities which must be considered, and which may 
not apply to any other pumping plant. There are two things, 






IX TR OD UCTION. 1 3 

however, which come within ordinary practice, and if designs 
be made to accord with either or both, the greater part of 
pump-service will have been fully met. 

The first one is, that if water-ends be made sufficiently 
strong to handle water at one hundred and fifty pounds press- 
ure, fully eight-tenths of the ordinary run of pump require- 
ments can be supplied. It is the common practice in designing 
water-ends for trade pumps to make the details of suitable size 
and form for this pressure. This will cover the highest fire- 
pressure, which is usually the severest test to which an ordi- 
nary trade pump is put. For small water-works the pressures 
rarely ever reach the one-hundred-and-fifty-pound limit, even 
when on direct service. For hydraulic elevator service the 
pressure seldom exceeds one hundred pounds per square inch, 
except in steel-works and other places where there is a general 
hydraulic system using very high pressures. 

Tank-service usually calls for lighter pressures, ranging 
from twenty-five to fifty pounds, but it is not customary among 
steam-pump-makers to make any difference in the weight of 
the water-end ; the size remaining the same, will require the 
same detail and workmanship, so that nothing but a small 
amount of cast iron would be saved, and that is not worth the 
cost of altering or making new core-boxes. 

The second relates to steam-pressure, which does not in 
ordinary practice exceed eighty or ninety pounds, so that if a 
steam-end of a pump be designed for one hundred pounds 
pressure, factory, water-works, and other service will be amply 
provided for. 

Combinations of such steam- and water-ends will, therefore, 
meet almost every requirement in ordinary hydraulic oper- 
ations. 

Pumps for special service for higher steam- and water- 
pressures, such as doubling either or both of them, will re- 
quire new proportions. An increased steam-pressure will, 
in general, require nothing more than thicker castings and 
stronger bolting, the size of the ports, the distribution of 

2 



14 PUMPING MACHINERY. 

m, and other details remaining much the same. For the 
water-end it is jfeen best bo entirely change its form, and I 

3d with this . a water-pressure is, 

th few e quant:: - :" water to be deliv- 

dL Th. sc in the zase :f hydraulic-pressure 

pumps, but is not generally true of pumping for mines. 

V. these pumps must be able :: 

uot _t : :" breakage, an: with is little 

expenditure of power as possible. But there are other c 

:.: mis than the mere saving of coal: a pump must be 

ole, easily managed, and certain in its operation, or it will 

fail to meet the nents of its ov e ho seldom knows 

anything about pumping machine The va :usi- 

annually done in direct-acting single and du^_ 
pumps car. : Ay be braced directly to their meeting the 
above cone 



WATER-PISTONS AND PLUNGERS. 



15 



CHAPTER II. 



WATER-PISTONS AND PLUNGERS. 




Pistons. — The piston shown in section in Fig. 1 is the one 
in most common use. It consists of an iron or brass cast- 
ing bored to fit the piston- 
rod, and turned on the FlG# '• 
outer flange to a loose fit 
in the bore of the cylinder ; 
and also turned to a diam- 
eter suitable to the thick- 
ness of the packing to be , 
used. The length of the <\ 
piston should be such as 
to admit not less than 
three, or, better still, four 
rings of packing ; to the 

end of the piston should be fitted a follower-plate and ring 
for compressing the packing. In the above illustration, which 
is suited to pistons of small and medium diameter, say eight 
inches or less, the piston-rod is turned down to allow a shoul- 
der for driving the piston, and supplied with a nut for holding 
the piston firmly in position ; a second nut, re-enforced by a 
jamb-nut, permits an adjustment of the follower and packing. 
Each follower should be fitted with two tapped holes for 
screwing in eye-bolts, to facilitate removal when the piston 
requires repacking. 

For larger pistons the design, Fig. 2, is used ; it is in all 
respects the same as the former, except in the method of se- 
curing the follower. 

The packing may be of any one of the numerous kinds now 



i6 



PLMPIXG MACHINERY. 



:ed to the trade, such as square-plaited flax, hemp, cotton 
with rubber core, etc. Another variety, made up oi layers of 



Fig. 2. 




cotton-cloth and sheet-rubber, known to the trade as Tuck's 
packing, can be had in great variety in both width and thick- 
ness, but usually square, as j 2 " X *4", ~y&" X %", %" X 3 _ 
etc. 



In packing a water-piston a word of caution may not be 
out of place here, and this caution applies particularly to the 
use of Tuck's packing, and all other packings of similar con- 
struction, and that is. — the packing must be cut not less than 
one width shorter than will permit the ends touching when 
wrapped around the piston; for example. 5s" packing should 
be cut - r ; " shorter than the circumference of the outer rim 
of the piston, j£" packing to be cut %£" shorter, and in like 
manner for anv other size. The reason for shortening the 
packing is that when new it is perfectly dry ; but as it imme- 
diately absorbs moisture in the pump, it will soon swell t: 
enough to wholly prevent the movement of the piston if 
the ends of the packing are allowed to touch each other ; by 
shortening the packing an end movement is permitted, instead 
of compelling a radial one. 

Cup-leather-packed pistons are largely in use, espe- 
cially for small pumps. Fig. 3 represents a sectional elevation 



WATER-PISTONS AND PLUNGERS. 



*7 



of such a piston ; it is made up of three parts, — the piston-head, 
or that portion secured to the rod ; the chunk-ring, or central- 
distance piece, and the 

follower ; together with FlG - 3- 

the two cup-leathers, 
as shown. Inasmuch 
as this type of piston 
does not require an 
adjustable follower, the 
piston-rod extends clear \v_A 
through, and fitted with 
a nut and jamb-nut, as 
shown. 

The leather must be 
of a solid oak-tanned 

quality, without soft spots or spongy places, and must be 
uniform in thickness ; y^ and -f^ of an inch being the ordinary 
or average thickness in selected hides. Nearly all leather 
dealers, especially those in the larger cities, have a specially- 
prepared leather for hydraulic work, at a price but little in 
advance over first-quality sole-leather. 

A mould for making cup-leathers is shown in Fig. 4. 
The outside diameter, A, corresponds to that of the cylinder it 

Fig. 4. 





is intended to fit. The width of the groove must be suited to 
the thickness of the leather, together with a slight reduction 
b 2* 



18 



PUMPING MACHINERY. 



on the inside, B, say -^ of an inch ; the corners must have a 
radius sufficiently large, say y 2 to Y± gf an inch, to prevent 
injuring the leather; the depth of the cup, C, should not be 
more than sufficient to make a tight joint. Leathers for a 
four-inch piston need not be cut more than i^ inches larger 
in diameter, and those for an eight-inch pump need not be 
more than iy% inches larger. As the wear is confined to that 
portion of the cup-leather which touches the bore of the water- 
cylinder, there is no advantage in increasing its depth over 
the size given above. 



To prepare a Set of Leathers.— After cutting out the 
disk of leather, with a central hole for the bolt to pass through, 
and making sure of its uniform thickness, it is then soaked in 
water until quite soft and pliable, after which it is placed in the 
mould with the grain or hair side down, so that that shall be 
the working side. The central part of the mould must now be 
veiy gradually tightened until the leather is in firm contact 
between the two faces of the mould. There will be more or 
less of a ragged edge above the top of the mould, which can 
be trimmed off with a knife or chisel. After the leather has 
taken a permanent set, as by remaining over- 
night in the mould, it may then be removed, 
after which it should be well greased with 
tallow, and is then ready for use. As cup- 
leathers thus pressed will permanently retain 
f their shape, they may be made up in advance 
of requirements. 



Fig. 5. 




desirable than 
broad ring, as 
This ring ran 



Pistons with Metal Rings. — It is not a 
common practice in this country to fit water- 
pistons with metal rings ; but if for any rea- 
son such a packing is thought to be more 
those just described, a piston made with a single 
shown in Fig. 5, will be found quite satisfactory, 
st be turned slightly larger than the bore of 



the cylinder in which it is to work, say ^& of an inch for 



WATER-PISTONS AND PLUNGERS. 



19 



a piston twelve inches in diameter. The ring is to be split 
diagonally and a piece taken out the same as for steam- 
pistons ; the ring should touch on the inclined edges when 
sprung down to its proper diameter. If made of cast iron or 
hard brass, the ring will be sufficiently elastic to fit the barrel 
of the pump until either or both are worn out. 

There is a strong prejudice in this country against such a 
piston-packing for water, and in consequence pistons of this 
construction are not plentiful, the preference being given to 
those adapted for the use of fibrous packing. 



Fig. 6. 



A solid piston with grooves, as shown in Fig. 6, is not 
largely in use in this country ; but it is a kind of piston which 
possesses some merit. It is simply a 
plain piston turned to fit the cylinder 
in which it is intended to work, and 
after finishing to size several grooves 
are turned to a moderate depth, say ^ 
to y 2 of an inch on a twelve-inch piston ; / — 
the width of the grooves may be about X 
Y± to T 5 g- of an inch. ^ — 




The efficiency of such a piston depends 
on the fact that sudden enlargements in 
any cavity through which water is to pass 
under pressure induces certain currents 

in the cavity which seriously impede, if they do not prevent, 
a direct passage of water. Now, in the case of a rapidly- 
moving piston this interference, as would be the case where 
several grooves occur, would nearly, if not entirely, prevent 
a flow of water in any direction before the reversal of the 
piston at the end of its stroke, at which time the direction 
of pressure would also be reversed, the result being a tight 
piston, water-packed. 



The piston fitted with wood, shown in Fig. 7, is repro- 
duced from Burgh's " Condensation of Steam." This piston 
was introduced in i860 for use in circulating pumps for marine 



20 



PUMPIXG MA CHINER Y. 



engines. It is a metal-grooved disk, with blocks of wood 
(lignum-vitse) fitted in the groove. The only feature worthy 



Fig. 7. 




of comment is the fitting of the blocks with each other, which 
is shown in the top view. 

Linings for Piston-Pumps. — In designing a water-end 
for a piston-pump it is considered good practice, but by no 
means a universal one, to line the barrel with a brass bushing. 
For small pumps, say less than six inches in diameter of piston, 
a seamless drawn tube pressed into a bored hole, and slightly 
upset or riveted over each end, as in Fig. 8, or made long 
enough to touch the heads, as in Fig. 9, is practised by pump- 



WATER-PISTONS AND PLUNGERS. 



21 



makers. The second is much the best arrangement of the 
two, because the lining can be more easily removed and a new 
one substituted ; the objection to it, if any, being mainly one 
of first cost in manufacture, there being a longer hole to bore 



Fig. 8. 




in the pump-barrel and a longer tube to supply, which means 
more weight of brass ; in addition to which is the cost of cutting 
a port through each end of the lining for the water. The 
objection to the first of the two examples is the great difficulty 
in supplying a distant customer with a tube which shall exactly 
fit the cylinder of his pump. The difference between a tight 

Fig. 9. 




fit and a loose fit is here made more apparent than almost 
any other portion of the pump ; for example, if the tube be 
T0V0 °f an mcn over s i ze > ^ will be almost, if not quite, im- 
possible to get it in place without special appliances ; on the 
other hand, should it be yoVo" of an inch less in diameter than 
the bore of the water-cylinder, it will not fit, and cannot be 
used. 



22 



PC MFIXG MA CHIXER I : 



So small a dimension as that given above, when taken in 
connection with diameters of four to six inches, is almost im- 
possible to register and make duplicate work to fit, except the 
pump be returned to the shop where it was built, and where 
are special appliances for forcing in the larger tube. If, how- 
ever, the tube extend from end to end, as in Fig. 9, the smaller 
tube may be used, the heads preventing end-motion, and a 
film of water will make the tube tight in its place. 

A removable lining, as shown in Fig. 10, is a better form 
than either of the above. In this case the barrel of the pump 

Fig. 10. 




is bored and the lining turned to fit. This lining is provided 
with a flange for securing it in place, a strong and well-de- 
signed arrangement. Incidentallv, another advantage is had 
in the fact that the flange being circular admits of a regular 
spacing of bolt-holes, so that, in the event of the bottom of 
the bore of the lining becoming worn by the action of the 
piston, accompanied by sand or grit, and thus become scored 
or worn out, it is only necessary to smooth down the rough 
ridges and partially turn the lining in place so as to bring 
a new and unworn surface at the bottom, the fibrous pack- 
ing adapting itself to the uneven or irregular circumference. 
These linings when worn out can readily be replaced by new 
ones. 



WATER-PISTONS AND PLUNGERS. 



23 



BUCKET-PUMPS. 

A bucket-pump may be described as a vertical, single- 
acting piston-pump, with one or more valves fitted to the top 
of the piston, opening upwards. These valves may be of any 
one of several varieties best suited to the work. For cistern- 
pumps, and usually for all pumps of small diameter and in- 
tended only for low lifts, leather valves weighted on the back, 



1 



^^ 



s^^ 





as illustrated in Fig. 1 1, are in general use, and give but 
little trouble, as wet leather makes an excellent hinge. 

If a bucket-pump is to lift the water to a considerable eleva- 
tion, say one hundred feet, and the diameter of the pump-barrel 
is sufficiently large to permit the use of a rubber valve, as 
shown in Fig. 12, satisfactory results are usually had. The 
valve-seat is made with four or more grids about J^ of 



pvj'L '?::;:- ::.-. :.-:: s.- ;:•: 



z : At :Al: :- 7. "..".:- :*:: At .riifirt : :' }.:z~ 

i:i: ::r:t. :..: ;:._• ::•;■ :: -'■'-■.' ::r.YtAtr.: 

: : : : : :t: t .: ^ ^:^t: irts. :. ".;..'. : " ; e : . : :t 

• A Afi Li :.:: ..:v._ : ::-.". itE .. -. t:: "."..: Art 

:\ :y :t : . : :" lt: :: :A A: A: :': r i;i~t:er5 : : : 

.::: AAti L": - : _ A =r. .: '. : '.". A:A: :'; ; vA t = 

:. LZ-trtr A : iss A=. 

:t iA~ t:t: A At vAvt • 

At :: :.f:.-.: .::t At trtiitrt : :' At sz ;:.. y :. Ag 

Lrt£ }-:.z: prtvtn: At ="A; "" t:. /.. \ i" i :.:: .. Ar 



a: : :vt A At z = :k 



A- A lt. in A A-Ak 

Ai : t life-i :: At 



A -\-Jnr 



. ... _ -^.r _ 



FffiE. 13. 



^»^ 




::r nig:: pres-S-ire .5 A:~a ir. Fir :-. 
The valve and seat are made of 
':.}.:L z':<-tV:-. i:.: Aiir-tti :":r 
: : :.:::... : if «cA :t r:\ A: : r.t :. r.- 
1:-: ir. : A: :::::: crtiftrt, 
The valve and seat are flat, and 
~» ... re : - :t : : A ArtA'A f::i:r: 
to each other; the best way is to 
scrape the valve true to a surfcce- 
z i.t =rA Atr: 5: i_t At 5ti: :: 
the valve. The engraving does 
not show it, but it is the common 
c7=.A:e ~Aen A::"^ At vAvt A 
=, A At :: - :: '.'. : " : :A: - 
i :r. : : At vAve :-t~"ttr. At 
ate an 1 or be a rings to a dis- 
:ir.:t : :' 51 A : ; A.r. ..- A : t 
the lace ; this is to make the fit- 
. . : tiiitr Li : Ay At 5 . . :' :ti 
:::.:i:: hi't Atr. :: be if :-.: 
with. 

Ait : :A:t: ryyt : :' : :~: 
jstt t:::. ■ ""t .:". ::.-t: rr r 
: A ■■ t.. servAt =r.z irrtr. a ~rti: 



depths. A variety of buckets an< 



WATER-PISTONS AND PLUNGERS. 



25 



Fig. 14. 



for this service, but none have been so entirely satisfactory as 
those fitted with ball-valves and cup-leathers, as in Fig. 14. 

It is the practice to make these 
buckets and valves of the toughest 
gun-metal only ; and as they are 
sometimes required to work under 
pressures which range from four 

Fig. 15. 





hundred to eight hundred pounds per square inch, the greatest 
care must be exercised in designing, that a proper valve area 
and strength of parts are secured. 

Instead of using a ball-valve, an adaptation of the miter- 
valve, as shown in Fig. 15, may be used. This is an excellent 
form of valve for clear water, but will not work so well if there 
be much sand or grit in the water, as it gets between the valve 
and its spindle, and often prevents proper seating. It is' for this 
reason that the ball-valve is given the preference for deep- 
is 3 



26 



PUMPING MACHINERY. 



well pumps. The engraving includes a design for a water- 
packed bucket or piston, a style not much in use because of 
the liability of occurrence of sand in suspension in the water 
at the bottom of the well ; it does not work satisfactorily 
except in clear water. 

Air-Pump Bucket-Piston. — The bucket-pump is gener- 
ally liked for both air and circulating pumps in vertical marine 
Fig. 1 6 represents a type of bucket in very general use 

Fig. 16. 




until within a few years. The bucket was usually, though not 
always, arranged for the use of fibrous packing ; the top of the 
piston was made with suitable openings for the passage of 
the water through it; over these openings was placed a 
single rubber disk, and on the top of that a curved guard, 
a central bolt securing all together. The bucket descending 
into the water forced the rubber disk off the seat at its outer 



WATER-PISTONS AND PLUNGERS. 



27 



edge only, it being firmly 
secured at the centre ; this 
required of the valve a 
somewhat complicated se- 
ries of internal movements 
at each stroke of the bucket, 
the result being destruc- 
tive, as well as requir- 
ing considerable time for 
the recovery of the shape 
and proper seating of the 
valve. 

The more recently-de- 
signed marine engines run 
at much higher speeds 
than was the practice ten 
years ago, and among 
the other changes in de- 
tail was that of the air 
and circulating pump- 
buckets ; so that it is now 
the common practice to 
put in a number of small 
valves instead of one large 
one. (See Fig. 17.) 



Fig. 17. 




P&rf 



^^\VV\VxV\\V\\V\^\\\\\\\V\\\^^ 



ri 



PLUNGER- PUMPS. 

A plunger-pump is one in which a turned plunger passes 
through a stuffing-box, ring, or barrel of a pump, so as to 
alternately produce a vacuum for the water to flow into the 
pump and a pressure when forcing the water out of the pump. 
Fig. 18 is an illustration of a design of pump much used for 
feeding steam-boilers ; the lower is the suction-valve, and the 
upper the delivery-valve. The plunger need not fit the barrel 
except at the stuffing-box. This pump is single-acting only. 
It is not necessary that the valves be one exactly above the 



28 



Fig. 18. 





PUMPING MACHINERY. 

other, as shown ; but if the suction-valve 
or the delivery-valve be located on the 
barrel near the stuffing-box, the barrel 
must then be increased in diameter, so 
that a clear space of fifty per cent, of the 
plunger area is had between the plunger 
and the barrel in which it works. A pump 
of this description is easily packed and 
kept in order; any leakage is made ap- 
parent at the stuffing-box, and thus with 
little care the pump can be kept at a high 
state of efficiency. 

An arrangement of plunger and ring, 
as shown in Fig. 19, is largely employed 
in direct - acting steam - pumps. The 
plunger is usually made of cast iron, and 









^mm$mmm$m^^^^^ ^ 



the ring of brass ; the two are accurately 
bored and turned to fit each other ; no pro- 
vision is made for wear, which, unless the 
water is gritty, is very slight. At first thought one would be 

Fig. 19. 




WATER- PISTONS AND PLUNGERS. 



2 9 



inclined to condemn this arrangement as faulty in design ; but 
many years of service, covering thousands of steam-pumps, 
has completely demonstrated its excellence as a pump detail, 
when used in handling clear water, free from gritty matter. 

Inside-Packed Plunger-Pump. — If the water to be 
pumped is gritty it is likely to bring extraordinary wear upon 
both the plunger and the ring when made solid. To obviate 
this an internal stuffing-box, as shown in Fig. 20, can be used 



Fig. 20. 




C 




with advantage. This form of plunger-pump is to be pre- 
ferred over a piston-pump for gritty water, inasmuch as the 
cost of a new plunger is much less than that of a new lining. 
There is a further advantage in the fact that slight reductions 
can be made in the diameter of the plunger by turning in a 
lathe to remove the scoring incident to the service in which it 
may be employed, the difference in diameter being made good 
by the use of a thicker packing. This arrangement of pack- 
ing a plunger makes a very compact design for a water-end, 
but the packing is troublesome to adjust or renew, because 
the back-head of the pump must be taken off and the pump 
drained before the stuffing-box can be reached. 

To obviate this somewhat troublesome detail in manage- 

3* 



30 PUMPING MACHINERY. 

ment, glands for internal stuffing-boxes have been furnished 
with a bale extending alongside, beyond the plunger and 
through the back-head, with suitable adjusting screws or 
other device on the outside of the pump. This greatly facili- 
tates the adjustment of the packing, but does not make its 
renewal any the less difficult or disagreeable. 



Outside-Packed Plunger-Pump with Central Dia- 
phragm. — Another design for a plunger-pump is shown in 
This is an adaptation of the water-end described 



Fig. 21. 




in the preceding section. The heads at both ends of the 
water-cylinder are provided with stuffing-boxes, as shown ; 
the plunger-rod connects the two plungers so that their 
movements are coincident. The plunger-rod passes through 
a rigid bearing, which is bolted to an annular ring included 
in the water- end casting. This bearing may be bushed 
with brass, but generally this is not done. The leakage past 
the bearing is quite trivial, and is not seriously taken into 
account. 



An outside-packed plunger-pump -with tie-rods is 
shown in Fig. 22. It is a favorite one for tank-sendee or gen- 
eral supply in rolling-mills, steel-works, iron-furnaces, etc. 
The water-end has a central partition which divides the cyl- 
inder into two chambers, each having its own plunger and 



WATER-PISTONS AND PLUNGERS. 



31 



stuffing-box. The plungers are fitted with tie-rods, which 
serve to transmit the power from one plunger to the other, 
and to make their strokes coincident. 

Fig. 22. 




A centrally-packed plunger-pump is shown in Fig. 
23. The principle of operation is the same as other plunger- 
pumps. One advantage which a pump of this kind has over 
the one described in the preceding section is that less room is 
required for the same displacement. The stuffing-boxes are 
not so accessible in this design as in the former one, but no 



mz^k 





SS22^ 



msw 



$ 



j 



difficulty is experienced in adjusting or putting in new pack- 
ing. An additional stuffing-box is required for the rod neces- 
sary to drive the plunger. This is an excellent design for a 
packed plunger water-end, and one which rarely fails to give 
complete satisfaction. 



32 



PUMPING MACHINERY. 



Bucket- and Plunger-Pump.— For any other purpose 
than simply that of lifting water the bucket-pump is not sat- 




isfactory, because of its intermittent delivery. If, instead of 
discharging into the atmosphere immediately above the level 
of the bucket at the top of its stroke, as such pumps usually 



WATER- PISTONS AND PLUNGERS. 33 

do, the delivery-chamber be lengthened sufficiently to fix a 
stuffing-box through which a plunger shall work, as illus- 
trated in Fig. 24, it will be shown that a double delivery can 
be had with a single-acting pump. To begin with, the area 
of the plunger must be one-half that of the bucket, and the 
stroke of each must be the same, and coincident ; the oper- 
ation will then be as below : 

We will assume the bucket to be at the bottom of its stroke 
and the pump fully charged with water ; then by its upward 
movement a vacuum will be formed underneath the bucket, 
the water will flow into the pump-barrel from below and fill 
the empty space ; let us assume that this volume be one gal- 
lon ; on the return-stroke of the bucket all the water which 
flowed into the pump-barrel underneath the bucket (one gal- 
lon) passes through the bucket, past the valve, into the cham- 
ber above it ; if this were an ordinary bucket-pump no over- 
flow would occur on this its downward stroke, but the pump 
we are now considering is fitted with a plunger one-half the 
area of the bucket, and having a stroke coincident with that 
of the bucket, the plunger has by its downward movement dis- 
placed its volume of water (one-half gallon) in the upper cham- 
ber, this displaced water passing off through the delivery-pipe. 
The next stroke, upward, brings another volume of water into 
the lower chamber equal to one gallon, but at the same time 
that this water is being lifted the upper plunger is being with- 
drawn, and instead of one gallon of water passing through the 
delivery-pipe, only one-half gallon has been delivered at the 
completion of the upward stroke ; now the downward move- 
ment of the bucket transfers the water (one gallon) from 
underneath it to the chamber above, the plunger descending 
at the same time with the bucket forces its volume (one-half 
gallon) out of the upper chamber ; the effect of which is to 
convert a one-gallon, single-acting pump into a half-gallon, 
double-acting pump. 

Bucket- and Piston-Pump. — A pump such as just de- 
scribed need not of necessity have a plunger ; the same effect 



34 



PUMPING MA CHIXER Y. 



can be had if there be two cylinders, one above the other, as 
shown in Fig. 25. These cylinders must have a ratio of area 
of two to one as in the former case, the larger or bottom 

Fig. 25. 




cylinder to be fitted with a bucket, and the smaller one with a 
piston. The operation of this pump is precisely similar to 
the bucket- and plunger-pump, already described. 

Piston- and Plunger-Pump. — This is commonly known 
as the differential plunger-pump. It is, however, but a modi- 
fication of the bucket- and plunger-pump, already described. 
The piston in this pump is not fitted with a valve, but is solid 



WATER- PISTONS AND PLUNGERS. 



35 



and furnished with layers of packing or not, as the circum- 
stances may require. This design differs from others of its 
class in the fact that a water-passage, or port, must be had 



Fig. 26. 




leading from the delivery valve-chamber to the end of the stroke 
of the piston in its barrel. Fig. 26 is a representation of such 
a pump arranged for use vertically 



All the lifting of the 



2,6 PUMFING MACHINERY. 

water is done at the upward movement of the piston ; when 
the piston descends all the water below it is forced into the 
delivery-chamber ; thus far it is but a single-acting pump. If 
we now consider the action of the plunger, it will be seen that 
during the movement of the piston downwards the plunger is 
entering the upper part of the pump-cylinder, through a stuff- 
ing-box, from the atmosphere; this plunger, being half the 
area of the piston, and of the same stroke, displaces only one- 
half the water forced into the delivery-chamber upon the next 
upward stroke of the piston ; the other half of the water is dis- 
charged because the displacement of the piston is made com- 
plete by the withdrawal of the plunger, the delivery-valves being 
shut; these valves, as well as the suction-valves, open but once 
during a double stroke of the pump. It needs no further 
description to show that the lower part of this pump is single- 
acting, while the upper part containing the differential plunger 
is double-acting when operating in combination with its piston. 



PISTON- AND PLUNGER-RODS. 37 



CHAPTER III. 



PISTON- AND PLUNGER-RODS. 



Rods which enter a water-cylinder through a stuffing-box 
must be round, straight, and well finished, and must also be 
free from seams and ridges, as both of these are likely to tear 
the packing. 

For clear, cold, and fresh water, there is probably no better 
material for pump-rods than cold-rolled steel, and for this 
reason pumps are usually supplied with rods made of this 
material, unless for certain reasons some other material is to 
be preferred. 

The tensile strength of cold-rolled steel piston-rods 
will average about 75,000 pounds per square inch of section. 
The elastic limit is increased somewhat by the process of 
finishing, and more nearly approaches the ultimate strength 
of the steel than is the case in ordinary bars. The superiority 
of cold-rolled rods consists in their almost absolute uniformity 
to size from end to end, much more so than can be had 
by ordinary turning and finishing. The hard, smooth sur- 
face produced by the finishing-rolls is the very best surface 
for the packing. 

Piston- and plunger-rods are usually made much larger in 
diameter than simply to furnish the requisite strength for 
doing the w T ork ; if a rod breaks, the pump is useless until a 
new one can be supplied. This is an accident which now rarely 
occurs, so that it is not a common practice to keep spare rods 
on hand. Pump-rods must also be large enough to do the 

4 



38 



PUMPING MACHINERY. 



work without vibration or tremor, as it would be next to im- 
possible to keep a stuffing-box tight if it had a lateral motion 
in any portion of its stroke. 

The size of a rod in a trade pump is usually selected for 
150 pounds water-pressure upon the piston or plunger; in 
addition to this there is always an uncertain quantity to be 
added for water-hammer and other unusual strains. The 
diameters given in Table I. average equal to those in com- 
mon use for the corresponding water-pistons or plungers at 
150 pounds water-pressure and for pumps of 12 to 18 inches 
stroke. 

TABLE I. 

DIAMETERS OF COLD-ROLLED STEEL PISTON- AND PLUNGER-RODS OF 65,000 
POUNDS TENSILE STRENGTH, FOR PUMPS OF 12 AND 1 8 INCHES STROKE. 



Water-Piston or 


Plunger. 




Cold-Rolled Steel Rods 




Diameter. 
Inches. 


Area. 
Square 
Inches. 


Pressure at 
150 Pounds. 


Diameter. 
Inches. 


Area. 
Square 
Inches. 


Pressure per 
Square Inch on 
Rod. Pounds. 


Strength in 
Pounds of 
Rodati-10. 


4 


12-57 


1,885 


*y% 


I.49 


1265 


9,865 


5 


I9.64 


2.946 


*% 


1.77 


1664 


XI 005 


6 


28.27 


4,241 


T-H 


2.07 


2063 


13,455 


7 


38-49 


5,774 


1% 


2.4I 


2698 


15,665 


8 


5027 


7>54i 


i J A 


2.76 


2732 


17,940 


9 


63.62 


8,543 


2 


3-14 


272I 


20,410 


10 


78.54 


11,781 


2X 


3-98 


2960 


25,870 


12 


"3- 


16,950 


2^ 


4-43 


3826 


28,759 


14 


154- 


23,100 


2^ 


4.91 


4704 


31,915 



It is customary to assume 65,000 pounds as the average 
tensile strength of mild steel, and this figure is taken instead 
of the higher one given in the preceding paragraph relating to 
cold-rolled steel. A factor of safety of ten is allowed, as it is 
the one usually employed in all pump calculations. 



PISTON- AND PLUNGER-RODS. 



39 



TABLE II. 

DIAMETERS TO WHICH COLD-ROLLED STEEL RODS MAYBE TURNED FOR BOTH 

PISTON AND PLUNGERS. 



Diameters in Inches. 


Area at Root 


Strength at Root 










Water-Pis- 
ton or 
Plunger. 


Pump-Rod. 


Bore of 
Piston or 
Piunger. 


Root of 
Thread. 


of Thread. 
Square Inches. 


of Thread in 
Pounds at 1-10. 


4 


*H 


i l A 


•94 


.69 


4,485 


5 


i% 


?X 


1.06 


.88 


5>7°o 


6 


i% 


*H 


1.16 


1.06 


6,890 


7 


*X 


l/z 


1.28 


1.29 


8,385 


8 


i 7 A 


l/z 


1.28 


1.29 


8,385 


9 


2 


i~/s 


i-39 


1-52 


9,880 


IO 


*X 


\U 


1.49 


i-74 


n,37o 


12 


2}i 


1% 


1.49 


1.74 


u,37o 


14 


*% 


2 


1. 71 


2.30 


i4,95o 



Tobin bronze, so named after its inventor, is a somewhat 
recent alloy, of which copper is the principal ingredient. This 
material has been used by the author in pump construction, 
for piston-rods and other details, and, so far as his experience 
goes, it fully bears out the claims of Mr. Tobin, as possessing 
great strength, toughness, and uniform texture. It can, when 
heated, be forged into any required shape as readily as steel. 
It works well in a lathe, and is susceptible of a high polish. 

Tensile tests, by Professor R. H. Thurston, of cast speci- 
mens .798 inch diameter, 5 inches long, showed a tenacity 
per square inch of original section of 67,600 pounds ; te- 
nacity per square inch of fractured section, 73,160 pounds. 
The diameter of the fractured section = .y6y. 

Samples of hot-rolled metal prepared from a ^-inch cylin- 
drical rod gave the following results when tested by Professor 
J. E. Denton under torsional strain: Tensile strength, 94,550 
pounds, with a stretch of 36.44 per cent, in 4^ inches length 
of specimen, having a diameter of ^ inch. 

The factor of safety given in the above tables, together 
with the net strength, has made it appear that the rods were 
figured on too liberal a scale; but we have ot yet considered 



4Q 



PUMPING MACHINERY. 



the method of securing the piston or plunger to the rod ; there 
will be in all cases a reduction in diameter, which will also 
reduce the margin of strength. Several kinds of fastenings 
are shown in connection with a water-plunger, but it is ob- 
vious that the same fastenings will be equally applicable for 
water-pistons. 

Pump-Rod Details. — To those more accustomed to steam 
than to hydraulic work, their first suggestion would probably 
be to taper the pump-rod as in Fig. 27, and, indeed, many 



Fig. 27. 




pump-rods are so fitted, but this method of fastening, so favor- 
ably known and practised in steam-work, has for one reason 
or another proven so troublesome in pump-work that it is now 
seldom employed. Any corrosion, dirt, or want of perfect 
alignment with the pump-rod will throw the piston or plunger 
out of line, and thus produce not only an uneven wear in a 
piston which is quite short for its diameter, but especially so 
in the case of plungers which have considerable more length 
than diameter; the friction first on one side of the plunger 
and then on the other side, as it passes the centre, makes a 
pump work badly, and is, moreover, a very difficult thing to 
correct. When a pump is new this difficulty is not usually 
experienced, especially in such shops as make it the practice 
to finish each plunger on its own rod ; but it is afterwards, 
when repairs are needed, when the rods have become corroded, 
or when new pistons or plungers are required to fit an old rod, 



PISTON- AND PLUNGER-RODS. 



4* 



or new rods to fit an old piston, that the trouble is usually 
had. 

A common and a better method of securing a piston or 
a plunger to a rod is shown in Fig. 28, which simply con- 



FiG.28. 




sists in turning down the rod to a diameter suited to the load 
on a pump. It does not matter whether the piston or plunger 
fits the rod or not ; the rod being turned to a standard 
diameter to fit a nut, the hole in the piston or plunger being 
enough larger to slide on easily, a reamer -g 1 ^ of an inch larger 
will give an ample allowance. 

A word of caution is needed in fitting rods with a shoulder: 
a sharp corner, as shown in Fig. 28, is wrong, and if the rod 
be so fitted it will be only a question of time, and usually not 
a long one, when the rod will break in the sharp corner ; this 



Fig. 29. 




is especially true in the event that a steel rod be used. A 
fibrous iron rod will last longer than a steel one under the 
above conditions. There should be a liberal round or fillet in 
the corner, as shown in Fig. 29, and a corresponding curve in 
the piston or plunger. 

Rods of the diameters given in Table I. may be turned 

4* 



-- 



f : mpixg ma chixer y. 



down to the diameters given in Table II. for their correspond- 
ing pistons or plungers. 

If a larger area against the end of the piston or plunger be 
required, it can be had by turning a taper back of the plunger 
and fitting a collar, as shown in Fig. 30. The taper should be 

Fig. 30. 




made on a lathe having a taper-attachment, and not by setting 
over the tail-centre. The collar should be reamed, and the 
rod carefully fitted to the collar, which latter should be faced 
off true in place to receive the end-thrust of the piston or 
plunger. 

The same result may be secured by fitting the rod with the 
threads, as in Fig. 31. The larger thread must have its root 

7;:-. ;i. 




above the diameter intended for the plunger, and threaded for 
a hexagon nut, which should be faced off true on the rod- 
centres ; the end of the rod fs to be fitted with a thread below 
the diameter intended for the piston or plunger, as are all the 
others. 



PISTON- AND PLUNGER-RODS. 



43 



If the end of the rod be threaded, as in Fig. 32, no reduc- 
tion in diameter will be required, and if thought advisable its 
diameter could be reduced at least one size from those given 



Fig. 




in Table II. In this arrangement the piston or plunger will 
be held by the faces of the nuts, which offer an ample bearing, 
all the strain coming on the thread. 

In water-ends of large size, and others in which the rod is 
not continuous between the steam-piston and the water- 
plunger, the pump-rod may have a collar welded on, as shown 



in Fig. 33. 



Fig. 33. 




In such construction the rod is to be uncoupled at the cross- 
head between the steam- and water-cylinders; the plunger-rod 
cannot pass through the stuffing-box, therefore the plunger 
and rod are to be withdrawn entire through the rear end of 
the water-cylinder; provision must be made for such with- 
drawal when locating the pump in the building in which it is 
to be used. In regard to the size of collars, it is a common 
practice to make them once and a half the diameter of the 
rod, the length of the collar to be one-half its diameter. 



44 



PUMPING MACHINERY. 



Jamb-nuts are shown in the several illustrations for securing 
the nuts which fasten plungers to the rods. This is a simple 
and reliable device ; a further precaution may be had by drill- 
ing a hole in the end of the rod and inserting a split pin to 
prevent the nut working off in case it should loosen. 

A special nut, as shown in Fig. 34, is sometimes used. It 

has an hexagonal body 
7:: _ tapped to fit the end of 

the rod, and an extension 
piece smaller in diam- 
eter, drilled, tapped, and 
fitted with a set-screw 
for tightening against the 
end of the rod, this set- 
screw being fitted with 
a jamb-nut as shown. 
It possesses no advantage over the two nuts, and is much 
more expensive to make. 



A«f 



! i 



Stufimg-Boxes. — The design of stuffing-box shown in 

Fig. 35 is the one com- 
FlG - 35- monly used in small 

pumps ; that is to say, 
for rods i}£ inches in 
diameter, or less; but 
i: is szrr.erirr.es used 
for rods as large as ; 
inches in diameter. 
These stuffing - boxes 
are usually made of 
ss, though some 
pump - makers make 
them of iron; they 
screw into a tapped 
hole in the cylinder- 
head or steam-chr : 
The cavity for the packing in stuffing-boxes of this design 




PISTON- AND PLUNGER-RODS. 



45 



is not usually as liberal as in the design given in the next 
paragraph, therefore the packing will oftener require renewal. 

The commonest form of stuffing-box for sizes for I y 2 inches 
in diameter and larger is shown in Fig. 36. The stuffing- 
box is cast together 
with the cylinder- 
head, and is bored 
concentric with the 
opening for the rod. 
The stuffing - box 
should always be 
deep enough to take 
in four strands of 
packing ; the gland 
should be made to 
compress the pack- 
ing, as it wears to 
nearly one-half its original bulk. The stuffing-box and gland 
here shown are intended to be of cast iron, which for ordi- 
nary service, and fresh water, will answer every purpose. 

Stuffing-boxes and glands bushed with brass are shown in 
Fig. 37. For diam- 
eters of rod less 




Fig. 37. 



than 2 



gland 




£ inches the 
should be 
made wholly of 
brass instead of in- 
serting a bushing. 
The bottom of the 
stuffing-box shows 
the bushing extend- 
ing through the 
thickness of the cyl- 
inder-head ; this ar- 
rangement is a good one, but stuffing-boxes are frequently 
made with a brass washer, bevelled for the packing, but not 
extending through the head. 




46 PUMPING MACHINERY. 

The question of bevelling the bottom of the stuffing-box and 
gland is one about which there is considerable difference of 
opinion ; the writer favors the bevel for round packings, and 
thinks that even in the case of a machine-made square flax 
packing a tighter joint is had against the rod than is the case 
when the gland and bottom of the stuffing-box are flat ; but 
for packings made up of layers of cotton cloth and india- 
rubber the bottoms of the stuffing-box and the gland should 
be flat. 

Metallic packings, so commonly used for steam-cylinder 
piston-rods, have not been found to be altogether satisfactory 
for pump-rods, and in consequence are but little used. 



WATER- VALVES AND SEATS. 



47 



CHAPTER IV. 



WATER- VALVES AND SEATS. 



Clack- Valves. — The simplest form of valve for pumps of 
small size and low lift is shown in Fig. 38. It is largely used 
in hand-pumps and for 
small power-pumps for 



agricultural and house 
services. The lower 
illustration shows a 
plan of the valve. It 
is cut from a piece of 
leather about three- 
sixteenths of .£ inch 
thick, the outefldiam- 
eter corresponding to 
that of the flange by 
which it is held, the 
inner diameter being 
enough larger than 
the opening into the 
pump to make a good 
joint under pressure; 
the clearance around 
the valve may be yfa to 
y^ inch, depending on 
the size of the pump 
and the thickness of 
the leather. The al- 




lowance for hinging may be one-half the diameter of the valve. 
A metal plate under the valve nearly the size of the opening, 



4 8 



PUMPING MA C HIKER Y. 





i ' y* 'j-'- ' ■ — ■ ■ - . . — - — ^ — • — — - 



and another plate on the top as large as the diameter of the 
valve, should be securely fastened to each side of the leather 
by rivets or bolts. Nearly all English books on pumps men- 
tion the use of hippopotamus and rhinoceros hides for large 
valves ; the same material is also referred to as beine satis- 
factorily used for packing pump-pistons. Leather of this 
description is very sparingly used for pumps in this country, 
if at all. 

A piece of india-rubber held at one edge, as in Fig. 39, is 

often used in large 

Fig. ;q. • , 

pumping- and sew- 
erage-engines. The 
openings are usu- 
ally rectangular, 
having a length 
several times that 
of the breadth ; this 
is a simple and dur- 
able valve. The 
rubber may be - : j 
to 1 inch thick, de- 
pending on the ser- 
vice and the general dimensions of the pumps. The guard 
should have a generous curve to prevent breaking the rubber 
at the line of flexure. 

An interesting experience with clack-valves is furnished by 
Mr. Henry Teague (1887), in a paper read before the Institute 
of Mechanical Engineers, England. Mr. Teague had occa- 
sion to remove a 15 -inch clack in 1863, substituting a 
new one with one-third of its area cut out in the centre of 
the flap ; the aperture so made was covered with a sup- 
plementary leather clack hinged upon the main clack at 
the edge opposite the main hinge, as shown in Fig. 40. By 
this means the concussion, which was the cause of making 
the change, was so completely prevented that, by placing 
the hand or ear in contact with the clack-box, not the least 
tremor or sound was perceptible, and the time of closing 




WATER- VALVES AND SEATS. 



49 



Another 
occurred in 
a 14 -inch 



could not be detected. The leather of the small supple- 
mentary clack continued in constant action for seven years 
before requiring to be 

changed, and that of Fig. 40. 

the main clack for thir- 
teen years. 

experience 

1866 with 

pump, in 
which Mr. Teague sub- 
stituted for double-beat 
valves others similar to 
the illustrations in the 
preceding paragraph, 
whereby the action of 
the pump was greatly 
improved, as shown by 
the two pairs of dia- 
grams which are repro- 
duced in Figs. 41 and 
42, which were both 
taken under similar cir- 
cumstances when the 

pump was travelling at 160 feet per minute. These dia- 
grams were taken with an indicator having a spring of 10 
pounds per inch of range. Fig. 41 shows the vacuum above 
the clacks, which, at the commencement of the stroke, is 5 j£ 
pounds per square inch for the break-clack, as shown by the 
lower line, and 7 pounds for the double-beat valve, as shown 
by the upper line. Fig. 42 shows the vacuum below the 
clacks, which began at 4 pounds per square inch in each case. 
The suction-pipe was 13 inches in diameter, and ran 40 feet 
horizontally from the pump before dipping into the tank, in 
which the water-level at the time of taking the diagrams was 
6 feet below the bottom clack. In taking a number of 
diagrams similar to those shown in Figs. 41 and 42, it was 
found that scarcely any two were exactly alike. This was 
c d 5 




50 



PUMPIXG MACHINERY. 



attributed, in most instances, to the undulatory motion of the 

:er in the tank from which it was being pumped The tank 

was 70 feet long by 40 feet wide, and the undulation was 

Fig. 41. 

Vacuum adore foot Yacre. 

?o Qn /go 




Fi^-. -r 2 - J] cu 2le- ~beoji Valve, 



"Vacuitm below 



■i VaZvc 




'0 



2.0 10 HO oO 60 10 20 Jq tOO 

T er cenca o e c ~ Sirojte. 

1— ■o : ' — ' 



<r^- 



sufficient at times to raise the indicated line above the atmos- 
pheric line at the finish, as shown by the dotted line in Fig. 42. 

In some pumps with a vacuum of about 7 pounds per 
square inch, or 16 feet head of water at the commencement 
of the up-stroke, the indicated line has been raised several 
feet above the atmospheric line at the finish. To obviate this 
evil with a long horizontal suction-pipe, it occurred to him to 
interpose at the foot of the pump a vacuum-vessel for the I ng 
horizontal pipe to deliver into, the vessel containing sufficient 
?-nt space to spare for taking up the fluctuations of the water, 
which are thereby prevented from affecting the working of the 
pump. This addition answered the purpose thoroughly, the 
pumps working with the greatest esse when so supplemented. 

The break-clacks (Fig. 40) were found to work incessantly 



WATER- VALVES AND SEATS. 



51 



for five years without changing a leather and without showing 
the least sign of leakage, under 350 feet head of water, or 150 
pounds per square inch, and there is not the slightest con- 
cussion, the time of closing not being perceptible. For a 
velocity of 160 feet per minute of the pump Mr. Teague found 
the weight of the flap should be about 2 pounds per square 
inch. On the top of the second or supplementary clack a 
third of still smaller diameter can be added, and even a fourth 
or more hung alternately on opposite sides. 

A hinged clack-valve made of metal with a leather face 
is shown in Fig. 

43 ; this does not FlG - 43- 

differ essentially in 
its action from the 
valve described in 
a preceding para- 
graph (Fig. 39), ex- 
cept that a fulcrum 
is usually above the 
valve, and should 
be as far removed 

from it as the design will permit ; the greater the distance 
the better will be the flow through the valve-seat and the less 
will be the ande of lift. 




A butterfly-valve is shown in Fig. 44. 
tion of a pair of clack- 
valves hinged usually at 
a common centre. These 
may be of any convenient 
shape, and arranged in any 
manner best suited to the 
requirements of the pump. 
The valves are usually of 
metal, faced with leather 
or india-rubber ; it is not 



It is a modifica- 

Fig. 44. 




52 



PCMPIXG MACHINERY. 



often that the valve and face close metal to metal, — probably- 
more on account of the noise than anything else. 

Clack-valves and butterfly- valves should be provided with 
stops to prevent their rising any higher than is actually^ neces- 
sary for the proper admission of the water into the pump ; the 
angle of the valve should be about 30 , but must not in any 
case exceed 45 °, above the seat. 

Fulcrums for Clack- Valves. — The central pin, or ful- 
crum, should be of brass, and of liberal diameter to prevent 



Fig. 45. 



Fig. 46. 




breakage. The wings, or valves, should have the holes oblong, 
at right angles to the face of the valve, so as to permit the 
valve to lift from *■{$ to J^ inch vertically at the hinge before 
it begins to turn on its fulcrum. (Figs. 45 and 46.) This 
kind of valve is suited only to slow-moving pumps by reason 
of the long time it requires a valve to seat, and the loss of 
water occasioned by slip during the interval of seating. 



Fig. 47. 




A wing-valve, as shown in Fig. 47, is largely used in 

pumps for feeding boilers, and in 
hydraulic pumps for high pressures. 
The valve and seat should be made 
of hard gun-metal. The seat may 
be driven in straight, and is held 
by the friction of its sides in the 
hole in which it is driven ; some- 
times the seats are fitted with an 
external taper, but this is not the 
usual practice. The face of the 
valve and seat are tapered 45 °, and 
are readily fitted and ground together. This valve may have 




WATER-VALVES AND SEATS. 



53 



a spring fitted to its back to hasten the seating, but this is not 
always done. 

Wing-valves sometimes have the lower portion of each wing 
on a curve, as shown somewhat exaggerated in Fig. 48, the 
object being to give the valve a partial rotation at each stroke 
of the pump, and thus compel the valve to seat itself in a new 
place at each stroke. 



Fig. 48. 




Fig. 49. 





A wing-valve with a flat seat and a leather face, as shown 
in Fig. 49, is sometimes used in hydraulic-pressure pumps 
where the pressure does not exceed 400 pounds per square 
inch. It works fairly well, but possesses no marked advan- 
tages over similar valves fitted with a bevel and seating metal 
to metal. 



A conical mitre-valve, as shown in Fig. 50, is recom- 
mended by Bjorling, but, so far as the writer knows, it has not 
been adopted by any pump-manufacturer in this country. It 
consists of a conical shell, the sides of the cone being at an 
angle of 45 ° ; the top part is turned to fit the bevel in the top 
of the seat ; the lower part of the cone is furnished with three 
or more wings or guides, according to the size of the valve ; 
these guides should be put in at such an angle that the valve 
at every rise will partially rotate so as to wear the seat evenly 
and prevent any grooves being formed. Inside the cone is 
cast a short spindle, which beats against a stop provided in 

5* 



54 



PUMPIXG MACHINERY. 



the pump-valve box. This design of mitre-valve is con- 
sidered by him the best, the flow of water being brought into 



Fig. 50. 




the proper direction by reason of the cone causing less ob- 
struction to its passage and producing less contraction of the 
fluid vein than the one referred to in the preceding section. 

A spindle- valve with a flat seat, such as shown in Fig. 51, 
is not often used in pumps. It is, however, occasionally met 



Fig. 51. 




Fig. 52. 




with in small pumps intended for light service, a disk of 
leather being sometimes attached to the valve to insure tight- 
ness when seated, as in Fig. 52. 



WATER- VALVES AND SEATS. 



55 




A bell-valve for impure or thick fluids, such as tar, 
molasses, paper pulp, tan liquor, etc., is shown in Fig. 53. It 
has a perpendicular lift, but 

is not fitted with guides. It FlG - 53- 

receives its name from a re- 
semblance to an inverted 
bell. An inspection of the 
engraving will show its con- 
struction, and especially the 
concentration of weight below the valve-seat to insure its 
proper seating. The valve is suitable for slow-moving pumps 
only, and, so far as the writer is aware, they are not in use in 
this country. 

Ball- valves are used in considerable numbers, but the gen- 
eral impression is that they are not a regular, but a special, valve. 

They are quite commonly in use in sugar-house pumps, 
filter-press pumps, and especially in artesian- or deep-well 
pumps. Fig. 14 shows the arrangement of a bucket of a 
deep-well pump, and Fig. 54 a design of a ball-valve and 
seat, for general service. 

The ball and seat should FlG ' 54 * 

be made of tough gun-metal, 
the guard should screw to 
the seat, and be so designed 
that it will have three or four 
ribs to guide the ball verti- 
cally as well as to limit the 
height of its lift, which should 
not exceed ^ of an inch. The 
width of the guides should be 
as little as consistent with 
safety, so as not to obstruct 
the flow of the liquid above 
the valve-seat. 

Ball-valves are sometimes 
made with an iron or lead core and covered with india-rubber 




56 PUMPING MACHINERY. 

to a depth of 3 $ to y% of an inch thick, depending on the 
size of the ball. This arrangement is not favored by the 
writer except for very light service. In his experience balls 
of this kind never gave satisfaction, but did give a great deal 
of annoyance at an average pressure of ioo pounds per square 
inch, the trouble being that the rubber covering would split 
and allow the metal core to pass through the seat or wedge 
fast in it under pressure. For cold water and light service, 
say 25 pounds pressure, the ball may be wholly of rubber, or 
weighted with a metal core to make it seat with greater 
promptness ; but for higher pressures only gun-metal should 
be used. Ball-valves must be firm in order to retain their 
shape, but when made of gun-metal they need not exceed 
one-half of an inch in thickness for pressures up to 1 000 
pounds per square inch ; care must be exercised in lightening 
balls that they are not made so thin as to prevent seating 
promptly. 

Disk-valves made of india-rubber are in more general use 
than any other type of valve in this country. Valves for 
cold w^ater should be of the best quality of india-rubber and 
vulcanized sufficiently to give the valve firmness, yet be 
sufficiently elastic to permit bending at right angles and regain 
its shape. For hot water a composition of india-rubber and 
graphite makes an excellent valve. A valve of this com- 
position is hard and inelastic, and will not adapt itself to 
inequalities ; it is necessary, therefore, to see that the valve- 
seat is true and flat. The valve should be scraped true to 
a surface-plate, and then the seat carefully fitted to the valve. 
These two valves are usually distinguished as a cold-water 
valve, meaning the india-rubber valve, and a hot-water valve, 
meaning the hard composition. 

Disk-valves are usually made from 2 to 6 inches in diam- 
eter ; sometimes larger diameters are employed in mine and 
other special pumps, but the general conclusion reached by 
builders and users alike is that rubber valves should not 
exceed 4^ inches in diameter. The four sizes more in use 



WA TER- VAL VES AND SEA TS. 



$7 



than any other are 3, 3^, 4, and 4^ inches, and probably 
one-half of all the india-rubber valves in use of this type are 
3 inches in diameter. The following proportions for india- 
rubber valves have given satisfactory results : 

2 inches diameter X f inch thick X | inch hole. 



2* 


« 


a 


X 


IF 


« 


« 


x I « 


3 


<( 


tt 


X 


J, 


<« 


u 


*• 16 


3i 


« 


M 


X 


5 

8 


«< 


(( 


x I " 


4 


«( 


«( 


X 


5 

8 


<( 


u 


V 11 « 

A 16 


41 


<< 


«< 


X 


3 


a 


«« 


* 16" 


5 


<( 


«« 


X 


3 


<< 


(( 


V 1 3 it 
*> IF 



Valve-Seat and Spindle combined. — The valve-seat 
shown in vertical section in Fig. 55 is one which has long 
been in use by the writer, and has given such excellent satis- 
faction that he o;ives it his 

"Ftc cc 

fullest endorsement. The 
seat is threaded to screw 
into a corresponding taper- 
hole tapped in the valve- 
deck of the water-end of 
the pump ; a taper of one 
inch to the foot will an- 
swer ; the threads may be 
8 to the inch for all sizes 
up to /\.y 2 inches diameter. 
The valve- stem is included 
in the same casting with 
the seat ; it is turned and 
polished so as to offer no resistance to the movement of the 
valve; an allowance of -^ of an inch is given for clearance 
between the valve and stem. The top of the stem is threaded 
with a taper-thread, the guard-nut being tapped with a corre- 
sponding taper-tap so as to screw down firmly, making a 
much tighter joint, and one less likely to jar or work loose 
than when parallel threads are used. As a precautionary 
measure a hole is drilled immediately above the guard-nut, 




58 



PUMPING MACHINERY. 




and a split pin inserted to prevent the nut working off and 
the valve getting adrift in the water-end. A brass plate -^ of 
an inch thick for a 2-inch valve, and ^ of an inch thick for 
a 4^-inch valve, is put on the back of each valve to dis- 
tribute the pressure of the spring over a larger area, and to 
prevent the spring wearing a groove in the back of the valve. 
This plate need not be more than three-fourths of the diameter 
of the valve. 

Valve-Cap. — A brass casting, as shown in Fig. 56, extend- 
ing over the top and down the sides of a valve, has been used 

by the writer in a num- 
ber of special cases with 
excellent results. There 
is no other objection to 
using it on all disk-valves 
of india-rubber except that of increased cost. 

Springs. — No general directions can be given for the 
stiffness of springs, but if the 2- and 2^-inch valves be fitted 
with springs of No. 12 brass spring wire, the 3- and 3 3^ -inch 
valves with No. 10 wire, and the 4- and 4^-inch valves with 
No. 8 wire, good results may be expected for the ordinary run 
of service. The diameter of the spring may be one-half that 
of the valve, and if made with five coils will have the proper 
elasticity. 

A metal disk- valve, as shown in Fig. 57, will inter- 
change on the same seat with the valve, spring, etc., just de- 

Fig. 57. 




scribed. These metal valves are frequently used instead of 
the hard-rubber valves for hot water. 



WATER-VALVES AND SEATS. 



59 



Valve-Seat with inserted Spindle or Guard. — A modi- 
fied form of the design illustrated on page 57 is shown in Fig. 
58. It does not differ ma- 
terially from the seat and Fig. 58. 
stem already described ex- 
cept that the seat is tapped 
and the guard screws into 
it, both threads being 
tapered as in the one pre- 




viously described. This 
seat and guard is in quite 
general use, but is not so 
good a design as the 
former, because the guard 
is likely to, and often does, 
work loose, there being no practical method of preventing it. 

Valve- Seat with threaded Spindle and Nut. — An- 
other design for a valve-seat, guard, etc., is shown in Fig. 
59. In this figure, it will 
be observed, the valve- 
seat is drilled with a 
straight hole, the guard 
has a shoulder, and is 
held down and in place 
by a nut underneath ; this 
nut can be secured by a 
split pin if desired. The 
objection to this design 
is that the valve cannot 
be removed without un- 
screwing the nut, and in 
almost every pump the 
under side of the valve- 
seats are inaccessible in the suction-chamber, and it frequently 
happens that those in the force- or delivery-chamber are 
equally so. 




6o 



PUMPING MACHINERY. 



Conical Springs. — Attention is directed to the conical 
spring used in this illustration ; this is a style of spring for- 
merly in almost universal use, but it has been superseded 
within the past five or six years by the parallel spring, which 
has already been described. Some makers of pumps continue 
to use it, but the spring is defective in the fact that all the 
strain of the spring centres in the two upper coils, and break- 
ages constantly occur at that point. In a parallel spring, as 
shown in Fig. 58, the tension is throughout its whole length, 
and breakages seldom occur. 

Disk- Valve with Hemispherical Guard. — An india- 
rubber disk-valve with hemispherical guard, as shown in Fig. 
60, is largely employed in pumping machinery in Europe, and 




is often of large size, having long been in favor with pump- 
makers and marine-engine-builders. It is seldom met with in 
this country except in mining-pumps. It possesses no advan- 



WATER-VALVES AND SEATS. 



6\ 



Fig. 6i. 



tage over the flat disk-valve with spiral spring, as shown in 

Fig. 55- 

Securing Valve-Seats in Place. — A design of pump- 
valve shown in Fig. 61 is one which has long been in use by 
the makers of the Cameron 
pump. It consists of a brass 
shell filled with vulcanized in- 
dia-rubber. The rubber forms 
the valve-face, and the metallic 
casing resists the pressure and 
protects the rubber from injury. 
It will be observed that the 
metal casing extends down- 
wards and surrounds the stem. 
The valve-seats are driven in on 
a taper, one exactly above the 
other. One valve-stem is com- 
mon to both valves. By un- 
screwing the plug on the top 
of the delivery-chamber the 
valve-stem can be withdrawn 
and the valves and springs 
removed for examination or 
repairs through the hand-hole 
plates. 

Another method of securing 
valve-seats and valves is shown 
in Fig. 62, which represents the 
practice of the makers of the 

Davidson pump. The suction-valve seat is screwed into the 
pump-casting, and is tapped to receive a spindle or valve- 
guard ; the deli very- valve seat is centred by the upper hole, 
which is bored in line with the lower one. A shoulder is 
provided on the upper valve-seat. The spindle, or valve-guard, 
passes through the upper valve-seat, and is made to screw 
into the lower seat ; a shoulder is provided on the valve-spindle 

for holding the upper valve-seat down upon its bearing when 

6 




62 



PUMPING MACHINERY. 



the spindle is screwed sufficiently into the lower valve-seat. 
The examination or removal of the valves is easily had by the 
withdrawal of the valve-spindle. 

Large valve-seats are often made with projecting wings or 
flanges for bolting the seat in place, somewhat after the style 

Fig. 62. 




of Fig. 71. Standing-bolts are recommended rather than tap- 
bolts. Muntz-metal makes a good bolt ; the nuts may be 
of cast brass. 

For mine-pumps the valve-seats are often flanged and 



WATER- VALVES AND SEATS. 



63 



inserted between the pump-flanges, as shown in Fig. 44, as 
well as in several illustrations in the chapter on mine-pumps. 
In designing a pump for high pressures with such a valve- 
seat, the lower pump-flange should have a diameter of 
opening the same as that of the valve-seat above it ; this will 
give the latter a better support than if held by the flange 
alone. 

An easy-seating water-valve is illustrated in Fig. 62, 
A. It consists of a cup-shaped valve with central guiding- 
pin, and a valve-seat and disk cast solid, as shown in cut. 

Fig. 62, A. 




This disk is slightly larger than the aperture below it in the 
valve-seat, and causes the fluids pumped to be deflected at 
right angles, just the same as an ordinary water-valve does 
with its lift limited by a stop. The fluids, therefore, have 
power to raise the valve as high as the disk only, and for that 
reason a stop to limit the lift of the water-valve is not 
necessary. This water-valve does not strike against a stop in 
its upward movement. When it closes it does not seat with a 
harsh, abrasive action, but, being partially cushioned on the 
water between the disk and valve, it seats softly, and there is 
reason to believe it a durable and satisfactory water-valve. 



6 4 



PUMPING MA CHINER Y. 



The water-ways are large, and the valve has capacity equal to 
any other. This valve is secured by a recent patent, and is 
used in the Marsh steam-pump. 



An annular valve is shown in Fig. 63. The seat has 
grids to give support to the central spindle, or guard, but which 

do not extend up to 
FlG - 6 3- the valve - face. The 

valve is an annular 
ring" fitted with wings 
which attach to a 
bored guide sliding on 
the valve-spindle. A 
spring, with nut, etc., 
is furnished as shown. 
In this valve - seat 
the area is somewhat 
reduced under that of 
an ordinary valve of 
the same diameter, but 
having two circumfer- 
ences for the discharge, 
the quantity of water 
which may be deliv- 
ered is very much in- 
creased. Assuming the outer diameter of the opening 
through the valve-seat to be four inches and the inner one 
to be two and a half inches, there is then : 




4 inches diameter = 12.57 inches area and 12 56 inches circumference. 
" = 4.91 « " " 7.85 " 



2! 



Xet area = 7.66 inches, and 20.41 inches total circumference. 



The lift required would be 7.66 -f- 20.41 = .375 of an inch 
to give the full area. 

The annular valve shown in sectional elevation and plan in 
Fig. 64 is exceedingly simple and has much to commend it for 



WATER- VALVES AND SEATS. 



65 




valves of medium size, and for pumps running at a moderate 
rate of speed. Weighted valves do not seat as promptly as 
those in which the in- 
itial impulse is given 
by a spring. The valve 
in this design is simply 
a brass ring guided by 
four wings, which are 
included in the same 
casting with the seat. 
The lift of the valve 
not being excessive, 
there will be little or no 
tendency to stick or to 
prevent prompt seating. 

The Troy Valve.— 

Designers of pumping 
machinery have always 
endeavored to keep 
down the lift of a valve, 
and to get rid of the 
grids in the valve-seat; 
some of these efforts 
have been successful, 
others less so. Fig. 65 

is an illustration of a valve and seat by the Holly Manufac- 
turing Company; it has a i*^-inch clear way of opening 
through the valve-seat, a flat rubber valve enclosed in a metal 
shell, which is top-guided ; it is not furnished with a spring 
to assist it in seating. This may be said to fairly represent 
the practical limit to which the reduction in diameter of valves 
for large pumping engines has been carried out. 

Valve-Guides. — Guiding a valve by a spindle issuing from 
the top of the valve and extending into a drilled hole in the 
cover of the valve-chamber, and at the same time having 

e 6* 




66 



PUMPING MACHINERY. 



wings to the valve fitting in a bored valve-seat below, as 
shown in Fig. 66, is occasionally met with, and is a practice 

which the writer does not 
consider a good one. The 
fitting of a valve and seat 
together is in itself an 
operation of the greatest 
nicety, and requires the 
utmost precision and free- 
dom of movement to make 
its operation satisfactory. 
No such precision is had 
in fitting valve-covers, so 
there can be no certainty 
that the centres of the 
valve-seat and the drilled 
hole in the cover are in line 
21 with each other ; if not, the 
operation of the valve will 
be faulty, and in conse- 
quence the action of the 
pump uncertain. Valves 
of this type should never be guided in two places, and as a 
matter of choice between the two guides, as shown in the 
engraving, the wings fitting the seat is one much to be pre- 
ferred to that of having the spindle guided in the cover. 

A top-guided valve without the lower wings is shown in 
Fig. 6y ; the top-guide is, as in the former case, the cover of 
the valve-box. This design is objectionable also, and for the 
same reasons as given in the preceding paragraph, there being 
no certainty that the guide for the valve-stem will be at right 
angles to the valve-seat, or that it will be exactly in line with 
the valve movement. 

In all cases where it is thought to be necessary to have a 
mitred valve guided from the top, the valve-seat and guide 
should be self-contained, so that the seat, valve, and guide may 
all be fitted together before its insertion in place in the pump. 




WATER-VALVES AND SEATS. 



6/ 



For valves having a leather or rubber face coming down 
upon a flat valve-seat the conditions are more favorable to 
satisfactory working, but on general principles the writer 
advocates having valve-seats and guides self-contained. 

A built-up wing-valve of large diameter (360 mm.) is 
shown in Fig. 6S, in section, with a partial plan showing the 
arrangement of the win^s or guides. The valve-stem has 



Fig. 66. 



a welded collar 
against which the 
flat disk for taking 
the pressure is fit- 
ted ; underneath 
this disk is another 
one of rubber for 
making the joint 
on the valve-seat; 
still another metal 
disk is added, after 
which the wings or 
guides are placed 
on the same spindle, 
the whole being 
held in place by a 
through-going key, 
as shown. The de- 
tails of this valve 
are good, the only 

objection being the unusual number of parts which compose 
it. An examination of the engraving will make clear that 
no derangement is likely to occur which would interfere 
with its proper working, except that of the backing out of 
the key ; a split pin would make secure against such a con- 
tingency. 

A rectangular valve with double seating is shown in 
Fig. 69. This is a form of valve not much used in this coun- 




68 



PUMPING MACHINERY. 



try; it is open to the objection that the seating of the valve 
on the grid always occurs at the same place, causing a rapid 
wear of the valve under what are usually thought to be very 
moderate pressures. The writer does not recommend this 
design except for light service, say for pressures not exceed- 
ing 25 pounds per square inch, although such valves are 

in use at press- 
Fig. 67. . 

ures many times 

greater than the 
limit placed upon 
them above ; nev- 
ertheless, they 
have not shown 
themselves dur- 
able under high 
pressure, and are 
quite inferior in 
many respects to 
circular valves, 
which are free to 
rotate about the 
central spindle or 
guide. Rectan- 
gular valves 
should always be 
of the very best 
quality of india-rubber to insure satisfaction, as they are sub- 
ject to shearing action over the openings in the valve-seat, 
as well as the bending movement along the central line of 
fastening. 

A multiple beat-valve with four beats or valves is 
shown in Fig. 70. This form of valve is not anywhere in very 
general use ; in England, probably more than elsewhere ; but, 
so far as the writer is aware, it is not used in this country in 
any prominent pumping-station. The main valve-seat may be 
secured to the valve-chamber casting by any one of several 




WATER-VALVES AND SEATS. 



69 



Fig. 68. 



methods ; the central spindle has a length suited to the com- 
bined thickness of the four valves, together with a proper 
allowance for the lift of each. 

The bottom valve has two faces, the lower one fitted to the, 
valve-seat and the upper one fitted to receive the second valve, 
which is similarly fitted for the third valve, and thus for the 
fourth valve, which completes the series. There are four open- 
ings for the passage of water, so that after making allowance 
for the difference in the circumferences of the several openings, 
there will then be 
required a lift but 
little more than one- 
fourth over that, if 
one valve had to do 
the work. 

There does not 
seem to be an agree- 
ment of opinion 
among English en- 
gineers regarding 
this valve, some 
thinking highly of 
it, while others have 
taken them out and 
substituted valves of 
a different design. 
The principal ob- 
jection seems to be 
that by reason of 
the large diameter 
as compared to the 
height the rings are 
liable to stick ; the 

valve is also reported as being noisy in operation, which 
would seem to indicate intermittent or irregular seating, 
with the attendant jar and hammer in the water end of the 
pump. 





7° 



PUMPING MACHINERY. 




A double-beat india-rubber valve is shown in Fig. 71. 
The main valve-seat is bolted over a suitable opening in the 
valve-chamber ; this valve-seat casting includes the grid for 
the lower annular ring, of india-rubber, loosely fitting around 

a central cylinder also in- 
cluded in the same casting, 
and forming the water-way 
to the upper valve. A 
curved guard controls the 
rise of the lower valve, the 
latter having a vertical lift 
of about 3 s inch before com- 
ing in contact with the 
guard. A brass grid forms 
the upper valve-seat, and by 
a slight projection down- 
d also serves to keep the 
large guard in place. A col- 
lared bolt and nut secure 
this upper grid in place 
and forms the central spin- 
dle for the upper valve; 
the curved guard for this valve permits the latter to rise about 
3^ inch before contact, the guard being secured to the vertical 
spindle as shown. This is a better form than a single large 
valve of the same diameter as the lower ring, because the 
circumferences of the two valves are much greater than the 
one large valve at the bottom, thus permitting the passage 
of the same volume of water with a greatly reduced lift, 
and in consequence smoother working than if all the water 
were required to pass the circumference of the larger valve 
onlv. 




Cornish Double-Beat Valves. — These are largely used 
in England, and to a considerable extent in this country, but 
as for ourselves the general tendency is towards employing a 
number of small valves rather than one large one in water- 



WA TER- VAL VES AND SEA TS. 



71 



ends, so that, for the present at least, they may be regarded as 
out of style. 

Through the courtesy of Mr. A. F. Nagle I am able to 
present a copious extract from his paper on " Cornish or 




Double-Beat Valves," contributed to the American Society of 
Mechanical Engineers, and published in Vol. X. of its Trans- 
actions. 

" The principal features to be considered are, — 



1. The width of seat. 

2. The unbalanced area. 

3. Its weight. 

4. Its lift. 

5. Its form of body. 



72 



PUMPING MACHINERY. 



" I. The Width of Seat. — What should be the width of a valve- 
seat ? Theoretically, a knife-edge, so that the same area 

Fig. 71. 











should be presented to the water-pressure before as after it is 
lifted. Practically, only sufficiently wide to sustain the pressure 



Fig. 72. 



Fig. 73. 





brought to bear upon it without injury to the metal. Brass 
should sustain a pressure of at least 1000 pounds per square 
inch of surface with safety and permanency. This is less 



WATER- VALVES AND SEATS. 



n 



Fig. 74. 



than one-thirtieth of its crushing strength, and only about 
two-thirds the pressure brought upon crank-pin journals. 

" 2. The Unbalanced Area. — With a wide seat it is impossible 
to know exactly what the unbalanced area of a valve really 
is. It may be that of either extreme between the inside or 
outside diameters, as indicated in Figs. 72 and 73, or it may 
be a yet worse case if the bearing should be perfect over its 
entire surface, like Fig. 74, where it may approximate to a 
vacuum between the faces. 

" Even if we do not assume a vacuum to exist between the 
faces, it is still certain that something less than the normal 
pressure must be between the faces, or the valve would be in 
a leaky condition ; and hence there must inevitably be 
required a greater pressure per square inch to start the valve 
than exists outside of it, and this condition is one which 
accounts for the shocks and noise of these valves. 

" 3. The Weight of the Valve. — I thought it was the weight 
of the valve, if free to move, which 
determined the velocity of discharge 
through it. If the valve is large in 
diameter compared with its lift, so 
that the velocity of approach be- 
comes so small that it could be 
ignored, and its form of such gentle 
curves that no violent impingement 
occurs, then it would seem that the 
weight per square inch of unbal- 
anced area must govern the flow 
or velocity; for it is this weight 
which is the equivalent of a press- 
ure upon the water within the 
valve which causes the outward 

flow. And if this theory were correct, then the flow through 
it would have the same velocity at any position it might be in, 
and the valve should rise and fall in exact proportion to the 
changing velocity of the plunger. If, on the other hand, the 
valve be of irregular form, very light, and the velocity of 

d 7 




74 PUMPING MACHINERY. 

approach very great, then the calculation for its action would 
be very complicated. 

" 4. Its Lift. — This is practically answered in the last section. 
The velocity being determined by the weight, and always the 
same for the same weight, then its lift would naturally adjust 
itself to the changing speed of the plunger, so that the 
requisite water might be supplied to it or discharged from it. 
If, for example, a valve weighed one pound per square inch 
of its inside unbalanced area, it was reasoned that the velocity 
through the valve would be that due to this pressure, or, 
applying the well-known formula : 

v = 8.03 x Vh 

v = 12.20 feet per second. 

" The size of the plunger and its velocity, and the number of 
valves, now determine the lift of each valve. 

" 5. The Form of the Valve. — First of all, there should be no 
air-pockets such as are possible in such forms as are shown in 
Figs. 72, 73, or 74. The curves should all be of easy lines in 
order to avoid impact, it being reasoned that flat surfaces, 
particularly at the upper bend of the valve, would cause an 
impact which would make the valve rise more than that due 
to the pressure produced by the velocity. 

" With these theories in mind I constructed the pump-valves 
for the High Service Pumping Engine at Providence, R. I. 
The engine is of the vertical compound type, with cranks 
exactly opposite each other (the first instance of the kind in 
this country, I believe, 1874) and geared I to 5, driving two 
horizontal double-acting plunger-pumps. For full description 
of this engine, see Franklin Institute Journal for September, 
1876. The plungers are 17 inches in diameter and 4 feet 
stroke, and the greatest speed about 20 revolutions per minute. 
All the valves were of the same size, and only one for each 
inlet or outlet, and that was 12 inches in diameter at the 
lower seat, and 9^ inches at the upper. The seats were 
designed to be three-eighths of an inch wide, but the seats, 



WATER-VALVES AND SEATS. 



75 



not the valves, were actually chamfered so that only one- 
eighth of an inch bearing-surface remained. 



Fig 75. 



" 1 

Center Force &';' K ) No zzle. I 

T 



SUCTION A. FORCE VALVES 
—TOR — 
••HOPE" PUMPING ENGINE 
JProvid<nce, H. I, Nwember, Wh . 1S74 



Bottom of Force 
Bottom of Suction 




" Fig. 75 is a vertical section of the valve, and Fig. 76 a full- 
size section of the seat. 

"The weight was 5344 pounds in water, one-seventh less 
than in the air. 



Mean net water- pressure = 5 2 pounds. 

Lower seat outside diameter I2^' // = 127.68 square inches. 



76 



PUMPING MACHINERY. 



Upper seat outside diameter 9)%" = 65.40 square inches. 


" " inside " 9}i // = 69.03 


u 


Net outside unbalanced area = 62.28 


it 


" inside " " = 53- °9 


u 


Seat area = '8.59 


« 



Fig. 76. 




-11 V3fa. 



1^ 12'dtaL 



"The seat area is only 16 per cent, of inside area, and only 
52 X 62.28-7-8.59 = 377 pounds pressure per square inch of 

surface. 

" Upon the theory of a perfect 
seating-, the pressure required to 
open the valve would be 62.28 X 
(52+ 15)-^ 53.69 = 77.31 pounds. 

" I confess that I am somewhat 
sceptical as to the possibility of such 
perfect seating of a ground valve as 
to produce the condition of a 
vacuum, but somewhere between a 
vacuum and the water-pressure it 
must be, and I have assumed this 
extreme condition the better to illus- 
trate a theory. 
" These valves worked noiselessly at the greatest speed, and 
after six months' run the grinding-marks were not worn away. 
" It will be observed that the valve weighed just about one 
pound per square inch of inside unbalanced area, and hence, 
if the theory advanced in section 3 were correct, the velocity 
of the water through it should have been 1 2.20 feet per second. 
It proved to be fully 20 feet per second. 

" In order to learn how much truth there was in these the- 
ories, I took several indicator-cards directly from the valve 
itself. 

" These cards are reproduced at full size in Figs, yy, 78, and 
79, and the dotted lines are added to represent the line of 
velocities of the plunger at all points of the stroke. 
" The greatest lift attained at 

II revolutions per minute was f inch = .032 foot. 
U " J.5 " = .039 " 

= .047 « 



l 3 

18 



15 it 
3 Z 
9 (i 
16 



WATER- VALVES AND SEATS. 



77 



" It is not possible to know the exact diameters at which 
the discharge may be considered to take place, but I as- 

Fig. 77. 
11 Revolutions per minute. 



^ 




























"*--. 


***o 
























1 1 1 1 1 


1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 


■ till 


1 1 1 1 1 


l l | l l 


||ii 


I 




1ft. 


I 
2 ft. 




3 ft. 





4 ft 



Position of piston. 

Heavy line traced by indicator-piston attached to valve. 

Dotted lines velocity of pump-plunger. 

Fig. 78. 





^ 




^^- 




















— ^. 


'"-v 























13 revolutions per minute. 

















Fig. 79. 
















i 


n**~ 






-*** 


*=** 


— - 














--.^ 




N 















18 revolutions per minute. 



sumed it for the lower seat at 12 inches, and the upper at 
9^5 inches. 

" Circumference of discharge at 

12 inches diameter = 37.70 inches. 

9 y & « u _ 2 g 27 a 

Total — 65.97 " =5.50 feet. 

7* 



78 PUMPING MACHINERY. 



/ 



" Area of discharge of valve at 

II revolutions = 5.50 X .032 = .1760 square feet. 
13 " = 5.50 X .039 = .2145 

18 « = 5.50 x .047 = .2585 

Area of 17 inches plunger 1.576 " 

" Maximum velocity of plunger at 

11 revolutions = 4X2X *l X 1 57 -=- 60 = 2.30 feet per second. 

13 " =4X2XijX 1.574-60 = 2.72 " 

18 " =4X2X18X1.574-60 = 3.77 " " 



" Displacement of plunger at 

11 revolutions = 1.576 X 2.30 = 3.6248 cubic feet per second. 
13 " =1.576x2.72=4.2867 " " 

18 " =1.576X3 77 = 5 9415 

"Velocity through valve at 

11 revolutions = 3.6248 -=- .1760 = 20.60 feet per second. 
13 " ==4.2867 -=- .2175 = 20.00 " " 

18 " = 5-94I5 4- -2585 = 23.00 " " 

It was calculated to be 12.20 " " 

Head due to velocity of 20.60 feet = 6.60 feet, or 2.87 pounds. 
" " " 20.00 " = 6.20 " 2.70 " 

" " " 23.00 " = S.20 " 3.57 " 

Weight of valve per square inch of unbalanced area, I pound. 

Ratio of weight of valve to pressure due to flow through the valve, about I to 3. 

" The diagrams, as well as experience, showed : 
" First, that the width of a valve-seat could safely be brought 
to a very narrow surface, probably much less than I made it 
{%") ; for the pressure in this case was but 377 pounds per 
square inch of surface. 

" Secondly, that the lift of a valve is exactly proportioned to 
the velocity of the plunger, if it is not too light so as to be 
brought to its stop before the maximum velocity of plunger is 
attained. The deviation from this theoretical curve, as shown 
in the cards, is attributable to the friction of the stem running 
to the indicator, and possibly somewhat to seat area, small as 
it is. 



WA TER- VAL VES AND SEA TS. 



79 



" Thirdly, that in the form of valve shown, the theory that 
the velocity of the water through the valve is that due to the 
head corresponding to the weight of the valve per square inch 
of unbalanced area, did not prove to be very near the truth. 
I can conceive of but one reason for this great variation from 

Fig. 80. 




the theory assumed, and that is, the effect of the horizontal 
issuing stream diminished the vertical pressure. I think it is 
not improbable that there is a mathematical demonstration for 
the resultant vertical force due to an issuing horizontal stream 
from a curved aperture, and express correctly the relation of 



So PUMPING MACHINERY. 

lift to weight, but I have not attempted to thus solve that 
problem. I do not think that the friction of stem or force of 
spring is sufficient to account for the deviation. 

" The valves were symmetrical and round in form, and were 
afterwards turned down and reduced in weight to 35 pounds 
in water, or .66 pound per square inch of inside unbalanced 
area, but I regret that I took no further diagrams. The nar- 
row seats, and the quiet action, and the synchronous motion 
with the plunger, were the more important features in my 
mind at that time, and the question of weight of valve was left 
to experiment after all." 

The four- seated valve shown in Fig. 80 is reproduced 

from an engraving in Engineering of a pump designed by 

Edward Easton & Co., London. It represents the valve as 

being attached to a rod forming a bucket- and plunger-pump, 

but it is obvious that the same valve may be differently 

employed by simply omitting that portion relating to the 

operation of driving. The pump from which this detail is 

taken has a plunger 20 inches in diameter, the bucket being 

28 inches in diameter, and a stroke of 33 inches. This pump 

works against a head 
Fig. 81. r , 

\p-^s. , . °f 7 2 pounds per 



Down Stroke.- 

Scale /-6o^ 
JHmos. line- 



square inch. The 
revolutions of the en- 
gine were intended 
to be 18 per minute, 
but during the trial 
"" averaged but little 



<■ v r stroke more than 13 revolu- 

tions; the efficiency 
of the pump at that rate of speed was found to be 97.3 per 
cent. 

The indicator diagram, Fig. 81, taken from the above pump 
at the time of the trial, shows how nearly a large valve, and 
one of the above design, meets the exacting requirements of 
water-works service. The indicated agreed with the calculated 



WATER-VALVES AND SEATS. 



81 



power required of the pump, which was found to be 47 horse- 
power. In the copying of the drawing the packing-box and 
ring at the top of the bucket was omitted for the sake of 
clearness. 



Fig. 82. 



Perreaux's Valve. — A novel form of valve is shown in 
Fig. 82 ; it is not used on this side of the Atlantic, and 
probably not extensively in Europe. 
The valve is made of india-rubber in 
the form of a tube flattened at one end, 
like the mouth-piece of a clarionet. 
The thickness of the sides of the upper 
part diminishes gradually to the top, 
where the two sides meet and form two 
lips, which, when the valve is in a state 
of rest, are in close contact and prevent 
the downward passage of the fluid. 
With any upward pressure the lips 
separate and allow of the upward pas- 
sage of the fluid. The gradual diminu- 
tion in thickness, or tapering of the 
sides forming the lips of the passage, 
enables the valve to open and close with 
the slightest variation of pressure, and, 
by properly proportioning, to resist any 
required amount of downward pressure. 
The passage for the fluid is larger in 
these valves than in any others of equal dimensions ; they also 
possess the advantage of having a clear way, there being 
nothing whatever to retard the passage or flow of the fluid, 
and they close perfectly and instantaneously the moment the 
pressure from below ceases. The illustration shows two valves, 
one in the plunger and the other held between flanges forming 
the inlet-valve to the pump. The action is the same as in any 
ordinary pump : raising the piston producing an opening of 
the lower or suction-valve, whilst lowering it closes the valve. 
This valve is chiefly suitable for the raising and moving of 
/ 




82 PUMPING MACHINERY. 

semi-fluid masses, like paper pulp, etc. These valves may be 
used singly for small pumps, or combined in sets for large 
pumps. But it may be remarked that, with the resistance of 
the material and the small dimensions of the orifices, an excess 
of motive-power is required, which may be an important 
element in large pumps. This valve is not to be recommended 
for heavy pressures ; the ball-valve is believed to be much 
better for pressures greater than say 25 pounds per square 
inch. 

These pumps have been made with rubber valves and piston, 
working in a glass barrel for handling acid. 

Bushings for valve-seats are not often required except 
for repairs, but it sometimes happens that such a detail must 
be carried out in a new design. Fig 83 is a suggestion based 

Fig. 83. 





upon a successful experience. The cast-iron deck of the 
pump is reamed, counterbored, and tapped with a straight tap. 
The bushing is of gun-metal, threaded to correspond to the 
size of the tap, the collar being turned to fit the counterbored 
hole, and projecting slightly above the valve-deck of the pump 
to save the trouble of facing off any slight irregularities of 
the casting. The inside thread has the same taper as that of 
the valve-seat, say one inch to the foot. A steel driver made 
to fit the inside thread, with an adjustable screw-collar to 
tighten down upon the flat surface of the upper side of the 
bushing, makes a good tool for screwing these bushings in 
place. When the bushing is down to where it belongs, the 
adjustable screw-collar on the driver can be slackened and the 
driver easily and quickly withdrawn, after which the bushing 
is ready to receive the valve-seat. 



WA TER- VAL VES AND SEA TS. 



83 



Dovetail and Lead Joints for Valves. — Securing valve- 
seats in place by dovetail joints, calked with lead, as shown 
in Fig. 84, was a common practice a few years ago, when larger 
valves than are now commonly employed in large pumping 
engines were in general use. This arrangement is not well 
suited to valves less than 6 inches in diameter, and has but 
little to recommend it for valves of any size, although valve- 




Fig. 84. 







-k=^ 



seats of 8 and 9 inches in diameter have been in use for 
many years having this kind of fastening. Now that the 
use of smaller valves which permit of screwed seats is the 
common practice, the above detail is not likely to be carried 
out in any important pumping engine contracts. 



A weighted valve, such as that shown in Fig. 85, was 
much in use in this country twenty years ago for large pump- 
ing engines, but has been almost entirely displaced by the 
smaller valves with springs instead of weights. The valve- 
seat in the illustration is a cast-iron grid, faced with brass, the 
latter metal cast in a dovetail recess as shown, and afterwards 
faced off true to receive the valve. The spindle is of tough 
brass or Muntz-metal, fitted into a tapering hole in the seat. 
The weight is cast iron, and is made to slide loosely on the 
spindle, and to prevent noisy contact a small rubber buffer is 
included in the spindle-cap as shown. The valve-seat is held 
in place by lead calking, as shown in Fig. 84. Valves of this 
design, from 6 to 12 inches in diameter, are in use, but they 



8 4 



PUMPING MACHINERY. 



are somewhat sluggish in their movement and do not seat as 
quickly as similar valves furnished with spiral springs. They 
are only suited to large pumps and slow piston speeds. 

Fig. 85. 




Size of Valves. : — It was formerly, say twenty-five years 
ago, the practice to fit water-ends with valves much larger in 
diameter than at present ; valves from 5 to 8 inches in diame- 
ter being quite common in water-works practice. 

A reaction afterwards set in, and the diameters of water- 
valves were then reduced so much that on some large pump- 
ing engines, built perhaps twelve or fifteen years ago, thin 
metal disks were employed less than 2 inches in diameter. 
This may be regarded as an error in judgment, which has since 
been very generally corrected, so that it may be said the com- 
mon practice is now to confine the diameters of rubber disk- 
valves to between 3 and 4^ inches. 

The area of clear water-way through a set of valves in a 
water-end should be not less than forty per cent, of the plunger 
area for pumps having a speed of 100 feet per minute ; and if 



WA TER- VAL VES AND SEA TS. 85 

that speed be increased to say 125 feet per minute, then the 
combined water areas through the valve-seats should be fifty 
per cent, of the plunger area; and in like manner 150 feet per 
minute would require sixty per cent, valve area ; 175 feet per 
minute would require seventy-five per cent, valve area; and 
200 feet per minute should have a valve area equal to the 
plunger area. 

In order to get this valve area there is the temptation to 
make the valves as few in number and as large in diameter as 
possible, consistent with quiet action when the pump is 
working at its highest speed. It will be borne in mind that 
the two properties of the circle are to be considered when 
designing valves and seats. The area increases as the square 
of the diameter ; the circumference varies directly as the 
diameter. The flow of water through the valve-seats has to 
do with the area only ; the escape of the water under the 
valve into the chamber in which the water is to flow has to do 
with the circumference only. 

Let us assume, by way of illustration, that a pump would 
require a single valve area, corresponding to 9 inches in 
diameter : 

Area of 9 inches = 63.62 square inches. 
Circumference of 9 inches = 28 27 inches. 

Then 63.62 -=- 28.27 = 2.25 inches lift required to make the circumferential 
opening equal to the area. 

If, now, we try four valves, each 4^ inches in diameter, 
precisely the same area is had, but the circumference will be 
doubled, thus : 

Area of 4)4 inches = 15.90 X 4 valves = 63.60 inches total area. 

Circumference of 4^ inches = 14. 13 X 4 valves = 56.52 inches combined 
circumferences. 

Then 63.60 -=- 56.52 = 1.125 inches lift required of each valve to give a 
circumferential opening equal to the area, or one-half that required by the single 
valve. 

It will be understood that both of the above illustrations 
have reference to the diameter of the opening, and not that 



86 



PUMPL\G MA CHIXER I : 



of the valves ; to be exact, we must deduct the area of the 
grids, taking only the clear water-way through the seat, but 
the application would be the same. 

TABLE III. 

SHOWING THE PROPERTIES OF CIRCLES APPLICABLE TO VALVE CALCULATIONS. 



Diameter. 


Area. 


Circumference. 


Lift required to equal 


Inches. 


Square Inches. 


Inches. 


the Area. Inches. 


*% 


I. 7 6 


4-71 


■375 


2 


3-U 


6.28 


.500 


2% 


4.91 


7.85 


.625 


3 


7.07 


9.42 


■75o 


oVz 


9.62 


IO.99 


875 


4 


12.57 


I2.56 


1. 000 


A l A 


1590 


UI3 


1. 125 


5 


19.64 


I5.70 


1.250 


sH 


23.76 


I7.27 


1-375 


6 


28.27 


18.84 


1.500 


6K 


33-i8 


20.42 


1.625 


7 


38.48 


21.99 


1-756 


l* 


44.18 


23o6 


1-875 


8 


50.26 


2513 


2.000 


8K 


5 6 -75 


26.70 


2.125 


9 


63.62 


28.27 


2.250 


9'A 


70.88 


29.84 


2-375 


IO 


78.54 


31-41 


2.500 


ioH 


86.59 


32.98 


2.625 


ii 


95-03 


34-55 


2.750 


nK 


103.86 


36.12 


2.875 


12 


113.09 


37-69 


3.000 



The speed at which a pump will run noiselessly, 
assuming that an ample water-supply is had, will probably 
depend more on the relation of its valve area to that of 
its plunger area than almost anything else. 

In a quick-running pump with too small a valve area an 
excessive lift is required of the valves, so that in the interval 
of seating a portion of the water in the pump-cylinder passes 
under the valves and back again into the suction-chamber ; at 
the moment when the pressure overtakes the valves in their 
downward movement the velocity is so greatly accelerated as 
to force them violently down upon their seats, the pump be- 
comes noisy, and nothing will relieve the pump but a reduc- 



WATER- VALVES AND SEATS. 



87 



tion in the speed of plunger, suited to the proper and noiseless 
action of the valves. 

Noisy action is not always confined to quick-running pumps ; 
it is a common fault with nearly all low-priced pumps ; the 
temptation evidently being to put in larger water-plungers 
than the valve area can supply at the common rating of 100 
feet piston-speed per minute. The additional cost of a larger 
plunger in any properly-designed pump is a small one com- 
pared with that of an entire water-end, which would have to 
be supplied if a larger valve area must be furnished. The 
writer has known of pumps which barely measured 25 per 
cent, of valve area, when the least measurement should have 
been 40 per cent., a species of fraud rarely detected until too 
late to remedy it. 

A concentric ring- valve is shown in Fig. 86 ; it has but 
recently been introduced in this country. 

Fig. 86. 




After a very exhaustive research in the matter of valve 
design, Professor Riedler, of Berlin, has given this the pref- 



m PIMPL\G MACHINERY. 

erence over all others for large valves, for quick-running 
engines. An inspection of the drawing will show that this 
design offers a large valve area for a comparatively small diam- 
eter of valve-chamber. This valve is intended to be operated 
by a suitable mechanism, which insures opening and closing 
at periods exactly corresponding to the changes in piston or 
plunger movement. This positive movement permits a higher 
piston speed than can be had in designs depending upon either 
gravity or springs for closing the valves. Its efficiency has 
certainly never been surpassed, and in point of simplicity, 
strength, ana cmsea/ae:;t durability i: seems t: leave eat little 
more to be desired 



Mechanically-operated water-valves 



never became popular in this country, and finally dropped out 
altogether, so that it was something of a s t: Am e. a: an 

engineers when it was learned that several large, high-speed 
pumping engines had been built, and exhaustive experimental 
tests made, in Germany, in which mechanically-operated valves 
proved so highly satisfactory that their future adoption in all 
large and imp:: taut high-speed pumping engines seems now 
t: be nearly, if net alt: getlaer, certain. 

Professor Riedler, of Berlin, has probably undertaken and 
accomplished more in the matter of indicator research in 
pumping engines than any other person now living. His 
designs for valves and valve-moving mechanism are the result 
of the thorough investigation of pumping machinery actually 
at work in mines and water-works stations. The valve-gear 
invented by him is the result of this investigation, and not the 
development of a chance thought. Large pumping engines 
made on his system are at work in Europe at piston-speeds of 
more than 300 feet per minute, and at high pressures such as 
usually attach to mining operations. Several designs, with 
descriptive matter, have been published by Professor Riedler 
:n Hermanm bat s: far as tbe mater knavrs titer- have never 



WATER-VALVES AND SEATS. 89 

been translated into English. It was the intention to have 
had translations made, in part, of Professor Riedler's papers, 
and certain engravings reproduced, but it was found that to 
make proper presentation would occupy more space than 
could be given the subject in this book. Whatever the writer 
may do in the future regarding this subject, he now refers the 
reader to : 

I. Indicator- Vcrsuche an Pumpen und Wasserhaltungs- 
Maschinen. Von A. Riedler, Professor des Maschinenbaues 
an der kgl. Technischen Hochschule in Munchen. Mit 21 
Tafeln und 24 Text Figuren. 1881. 

II. Illustrated papers by Professor Riedler, published in the 
Zeitschrift des Vereines Deutscher Ingenieure : 

Band xxvii., 1883, " Die unterirdischen Compound- Wasser- 
haltungs Maschinen am Mayrau-Schachte der Prager-Eisen- 
industrie-Gesellschaft zu Kladno." 

Band xxix., 1885, " Constructions-Grundlagen der Pumpen- 
und Geblase-Ventile." 

Band xxxii., 1888, " Pumpen mit gesteuerten Ventilen." 

Band xxxiv., 1890, " Neuere Wasserwerksmaschinen." 



?' 



?v:>:?::;z- ::a :.-::-£,- y 



_ _..-._ 



R V. 



A17.- .-..': "± :vv::- :>:.--: :iz?_5. 



Air-Ciianbers. — AZ ii-gfe cunc.f ~v.:f: :e frref - ::f i:r- 
zZirrZ-eri if '=. 5~: :~ ziwir.^ irf ::r.::r_:j5 ieZvery :: 
;vi:e: if feiire i Z uAex ::.:;:• Live a. ii= :f. vr^t ~ _ :i". 2: : :t 
uniform than is die case in single 

z.:::.zs : :: ever. ri:. ey sh:ZA Zive r:: - 

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f;m feiivery 

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t_~7_ ft i:-.:erm:r:er.: ei:f. 5_::tii:vt 

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ftem. The 
and if the 



...._. . ..—.*. • 



AIR- AND VACUUM- CHAMBERS. 



91 



the almost inevitable result. A properly-designed air-chamber 
corrects this to a certain extent, but not wholly so. The 
largest air-chambers are required for single-acting pumps, and 
the smallest size for double-acting duplex pumps. 

The form of an air-chamber admits of considerable 
latitude in design. For small pumps in which it is the 
common practice to use copper air-chambers, the design 
shown in Fig. 87 is seldom deviated from, because pump- 
makers with scarcely any exception 
Fig. 89. fo U y tn em from certain copper- 

smiths who make their manufac- 



Fig. 90. 





"T 



ture a leading specialty, and have adopted certain dimensions 
which meet all the ordinary requirements of the trade. These 
dimensions are approximately as below : 



Diameter, 6 inches. Height, io inches. Base threaded for I inch pipe tap. 

(< g a a j . i( a a it t \/ it a 

it q ft a j c a «< u (( ji/ it it 

ft JQ it It J^ " " « « 2 " " 



9 2 



PUMPING MA C MINER Y. 



For highly-finished pumps the air-chambers are sometimes 
made of polished copper, riveted and soldered to a cast-iron 
or brass base, as in Fig. 88. The design of the base admits 
of a wide variety of treatment, but the whole does not 
materially differ in proportions from those of cast iron, except 
that they are usually smaller in diameter and made enough 
higher to get the proper cubic capacity. 

Where larger air-chambers are required, it is customarv to 
make them of cast iron, and usually of the form in Fig. 89 for 
medium-sized pumps, and Fig. 90 for large pumps. A table 
of dimensions and capacities suited to all ordinary require- 
ments is here given : 

TABLE IV. 

ORDINARY DIMENSIONS AND CAPACITIES OF AIR-CHAMBERS. 



Inside Measurement. 


Capacity. 












Remarks. 


Diameter. 
Inches. 


Height 
Inches. 


Cubic Feet. 


Gallons. 




12 


24 


157 


n-75 


The diameter of the 


14 


28 


2-49 


1S.64 


neck and flange of an 


16 


32 


3-72 


27.87 


air- chamber will be 


18 


36 


5-30 


39.66 


governed somewhat 


20 


40 


7.16 


54-34 


by its intended loca- 


22 


44 


9.68 


72.48 


tion, but it will usually 


24 


48 


12.56 


94.00 


approximate one-third 


26 


5 2 


15-98 


119.42- 


that of the air-cham- 


28 


56 


19.96 


149.12 


ber foj the neck, with 


3° 


60 


24-55 


183.60 


its corresponding di- 


32 


64 


29-79 


222.69 


ameter of flange. 


34 


68 


35-76 


266.59 




36 


72 


42.42 


317.28 





Size of an Air-Chamber. — For single pumps, double- 
acting, the cubic contents of the air-chamber should be not 
less than three times that of the pump displacement ; that is, 
a single stroke. This will be for moderate pressure and speed 
only, such as ordinary boiler-feeding, tank-service, etc. If for 
a pressure of 100 pounds per square inch and upwards, to- 
gether with a very rapid piston movement, as in the case of 



AIR- AXD VACUUM-CHAMBERS. 93 

fire-pumps, then the air-chambers should be not less than six 
times the displacement of a single stroke of the pump-piston. 
For double-acting duplex pumps the cubic capacity of an air- 
chamber need not be more than one-half to two-thirds of the 
size given above. The position of the air-chamber should be 
on the highest portion of the pump, and always above the 
highest portion of the delivery opening. 

The diameter of the neck of an air-chamber should be no 
larger than that necessary to give stability to it and insure 
proper strength of connection to the flange by which it is 
bolted to the pump. The larger the neck the greater will be 
the disturbance of the water-level in the air-chamber, and the 
less efficient will the air-chamber be in correcting the inequal- 
ities of flow. 

It is generally known that water contains air in suspension 
or solution, and in improperly-designed hydraulic machinery 
is likely to make trouble if there be air-pockets or cavities in 
which it may collect. Having this fact in mind one would 
naturally conclude that an air-chamber would always have its 
proper supply of air ; that there would be no decrease in 
quantity at any time, even though it were not augmented by 
the liberation* of air from the water when passing through the 
pump ; but the reverse of this is true, and it is a common 
experience that air in large air-chambers almost wholly disap- 
pears, passing off, probably, with the water by absorption. 

An automatic air-pump for supplying the air-cham- 
ber with air is shown in Fig. 91. It is exceedingly simple, 
and does its work in a very satisfactory manner. It consists 
of a piece of, say, 2^-inch wrought-iron pipe, about 30 inches 
long, which we shall name the air-cylinder, on the top of 
which is screwed a 2^-inch tee, one end having a i^-inch 
check-valve opening inward, and on the other end of the tee 
a J^-inch check-valve, opening outward ; a pipe from this 
small check-valve leads to the air-chamber. On the bottom 
of this 2yi inch pipe, which we have named the air-cylin- 
der, is screwed a cap from which a i-inch pipe, which we 



94 



PUMPING MACHINERY. 



shall name the supply-pipe, leads to the water-cylinder head ; 
intermediate between the two is inserted a gate-valve or cock, 
which completes the whole apparatus, and which is suitable 
for pumps from 750,000 to 1,500,000 gallons in 24 hours. 

To start this air-pump, it is necessary that 
the pump to which it is attached shall be in 
operation. First open the valve in the supply- 
pipe leading from the water-cylinder head to 



V 




the air-cylinder to charge 
the latter with water ; then 
partially close the valve or 
cock in the supply-pipe 
until the check-valves be- 
gin to work ; this is easily 
determined by the sound 
or click of the valves in 
seating. 

Its operation may be thus 
described : Once the air- 
cylinder is full of water, any 
lowering of the water will 
be the cause of a vacuum 
above its level ; the air enter- 
ing through the inlet check- 
valve immediately fills this 
space above the water at 
atmospheric pressure. The distance to which this water shall 
be lowered may be controlled by the valve or cock in the sup- 
ply-pipe under the air-cylinder. The water is lowered in the 
air-cylinder by reason of its open connection with the water- 
cylinder of the pump, for each time the water-piston draws its 




AIR- AND VACUUM-CHAMBERS. 95 

water the same vacuum is had in the air-cylinder as that in 
the suction-chamber of the pump. The air-cylinder being of 
so much larger area than the supply-pipe leading to the water- 
cylinder, there is not sufficient time for the air-cylinder to 
completely empty itself before the change in the direction of 
motion of the water-piston, which at once changes the direc- 
tion of the flow in the supply-pipe, arresting the downward 
movement of water in the air-cylinder, forcing it upwards and 
filling the air-cylinder completely with water from the water- 
cylinder of the pump, thus driving the contained air in the air- 
cylinder through the delivery check-valve into the upper por- 
tion of the air-chamber. It will be seen that this operation is 
precisely similar to that of a reciprocating air-pump, the rise 
and fall of the water being precisely similar in effect to that of 
a reciprocating piston. There will be a greater velocity of 
water upwards in the air-cylinder than in its downward move- 
ment, because the downward movement will have a velocity due 
only to the pressure of the atmosphere, whereas the upward 
movement has a velocity due to the pressure given it by the ac- 
tion of the piston of the main pump. There will always be a little 
water carried over with the air into the top of the air-chamber; 
this excess of w r ater serves a useful purpose in the fact that by 
it the clearance in the air-pump is absolutely eliminated. 

There is no uniformity of opinion among managers of mines 
in general as to the utility of air-chambers on mining pumps, 
the drift of opinion being against them, mainly because they 
soon fill with water and become useless for the purpose 
intended. Owing to the indifference regarding this important 
detail of a pump, there has rarely been, until within a few 
years past, any device by which the pressure, and especially 
the volume of air, is maintained in the air-chamber, thereby 
failing to secure the benefits of an elastic cushion in the 
delivery-chamber of the pump. In the case of a single mine- 
pump a large air-chamber is of very great advantage, and 
under no circumstances should it be omitted. 

If a duplex pump be used, the air-chamber is less essential 
to smooth working ; but even then it should not be omitted. 



96 PUMPIXG MACHINERY, 



VACUUM-CHAMBERS. 

Definition. — Properly speaking, there is no such thing as 
a vacuum-chamber belonging to a pump ; it is an air-vessel 
attached to the suction side of the pump to steady the flow. 
The use of a vacuum-chamber is precisely the reverse of that 
of the air-chamber, which has for its function the chansrinsr 
of an intermittent flow into a continuous one ; whereas the 
vacuum-chamber has for its function the conversion of a 
continuous flow into an intermittent one. 

The flow of water into a pump is that due to the action 
of the atmosphere alone, and once the column of water is 
started its flow must be continuous if the best results are to 
be expected. The effect of the vacuum-chamber is to take 
away from the suction-chamber of the pump the water- 
hammer and other disturbing influences consequent upon a 
continuous flow into it, and from which the withdrawal of 
water is intermittent. The air in the vacuum-chamber forms 
an elastic cushion which will receive the excess of flow without 
noise, and give it out again as silently as it received it. The 
air is thus partially expanded and compressed at each wave or 
impulse of the water flowing into the pump-chamber. 

The size of a vacuum-chamber need not ordinarily be 
more than one-half that of the air-chamber; a good practice 
is to make the cubic capacity twice that of a single displace- 
ment of a water-cylinder for a single pump. A less size 
would answer for a duplex pump, but should one be needed 
at all it ought to be a liberal one, and the above proportions 
will probably be none too large. 

Suction-pipes are not always short and straight, but quite as 
likely to be long and crooked ; it is for these latter that a 
vacuum-chamber becomes a necessity, and to get the best 
results it should be placed as near the pump as possible. The 
form of a vacuum-chamber should be similar to that of the 



AIR- AND VACCUM-CHAMBERS. 



97 



Fig. 92. 



air-chamber; that is, it should have a much greater height 
than diameter. The table of air-chambers will give good 
proportions for vacuum-chambers also, 
and to which the reader is referred. 

A good design for a vacuum- 
chamber is shown in Fig. 92. Its 
form permits of application imme- 
diately below the pump, and continue 
the suction-pipe down to the water- 
supply. There is nothing about the 
design that will interfere with its being 
made in any size, even for large 
water-works pumping engines. It 
consists of two castings flanged, faced, 
and bolted together, as shown in the 
engraving. The enlarged mouth- 
piece is advantageous in the fact that 
a full supply can be had without the 
formation of an eddy about the inner 
edge of the opening when the pump 
is working up to nearly the capacity 
of the suction-pipe. 

The introduction of the suction- 
pipe into the air-vessel diminishes 
the volume of the latter to that 

extent ; an increased height rather than diameter ought to be 
given it to make good the space thus occupied. 




9§ PUMPING MACHINERY. 



CHAPTER VI. 



SUCTION- AND DELIVERY-PIPES. 



Suction-pipes should be as short and direct as possible. 
In ordinary trade pumps the area of suction-pipes is approx- 
imately two-thirds that of the water-cylinder, but if the con- 
ditions are in any respect unusual, then the suction-pipe should 
nearly, if not entirely, equal that of the water-cylinder of the 
pump. 

The suction side of the pump is subject to atmospheric 
conditions wholly, and everything which would tend to re- 
strain the free flow of water into the pump should be carefully 
guarded against. It is not possible to dispense with angles 
and bends in a suction-pipe, but much of the increased resist- 
ance to the flow by reason of these bends can be overcome by 
increasing the size of the suction-pipe ; this permits a slower 
movement of the water flowing towards the pump, so that the 
resistance is largely reduced. 

The velocity of flow in a suction-pipe should not exceed 
200 feet per minute. It is not an uncommon practice to make 
the suction-pipes for water- works pumps of the same diameter 
as that of the water-cylinders, and as 100 feet. piston-speed per 
minute is the common speed for direct-acting pumps, it will 
be seen that the flow is a very moderate one indeed. In the 
specifications recently prepared by Mr. Freeman for the Un- 
derwriter Pump, the suction-pipes were made unusually large; 
for example, a 

6x12 pump is to have a 6-inch suction-pipe. 
7 X 12 " " 8 " « 

9 X 12 " " 10 " " 

IO X 12 " " 12 " " 



SUCTION- AND DELIVERY-PIPES. 



99 



These pumps are to be of the duplex type only, double-acting, 
and run at JO " revolutions" per minute. By revolution is 
meant one complete circuit of the motion of any of the recip- 
rocating parts of the pump, and for a duplex pump is equiva- 
lent to four single strokes ; a somewhat unusual speed except 
for fire-pumps, as it is the equivalent to a piston-speed of 140 
feet per minute. 

The following table gives the relative proportions of water- 
cylinders to that of suction- and delivery-pipes as used by the 
writer with very satisfactory results : 

TABLE V. 

DIAMETERS SUITABLE FOR SUCTION- AND DELIVERY-PIPES FOR DUPLEX DIRECT- 
ACTING PUMPS RUNNING AT IOO FEET PISTON-SPEED PER MINUTE. 



Water-Cylinder. 


Suction-Pipe. 


Delivery-Pipe. 


Diam- 


Area. 


Diam- 


Area. 


Velocity of 
Flow at too 


Diam- 


Area. 


Velocity of 
Flow at 100 


eter. 




ter. 




Feet. 


eter. 




Feet. 


Inches. 




Inches. 




Feet. 


Inches. 




Feet. 


4 


12-57 


3 


7.07 


178 


2 


3-14 


400 


5 


I9.64 


4 


12-57 


156 


3 


7.07 


277 


6 


28.27 


5 


I9.64 


143 


4 


12.57 


224 


7 


38.48 


6 


28.27 


I36 


5 


19.64 


I96 


8 


50.27 


6 


28.27 


ISO 


5 


19.64 


256 


9 


63.62 


8 


50.27 


126 


6 


28.27 


225 


10 


78.54 


8 


50.27 


I 5 6 


7 


38.48 


204 


12 


II3.09 


10 


78.54 


I44 


8 


50.27 


224 


M 


153-93 


12 


II3.09 


I36 


10 


78.54 


I96 



Suction-Pipes should be of One Diameter only from 
End to End. — Enlargements are always to be avoided, be- 
cause they interfere with that uniform rate of flow so essential 
to the proper filling of a pump. The pipe should have a 
continuous rise from the water-level of the source of supply 
to the pump ; any irregularity in the laying which would result 
in the formation of an air-pocket in the pipe must be corrected 
if good results are to be expected. 

If the suction-pipe is larger in diameter than the opening 
into the pump, a short conical piece of pipe, one end fitting 



IOC 



PUMFIXG MACHINERY. 



the pump and the other end fitting the suction-pipe, should 
be made and attached either to the pump or as close to it as 
possible. 

Suction-pipes must be tight, absolutely tight; about 
this there must be no mistake, as anything short of it means 
uncertainty and loss of efficiency in working, if not a com- 
plete failure of the pump to perform the service for which it 
was intended. 

A leaky suction-pipe must be tested joint by joint until 
the leak is discovered and corrected. If the pipe has been 
laid in a trench and covered over with earth, it may seem like 



Fig. 94. 



Fig. 93. 



f V V 1 



s 



OOOO 

00 o 01 

©O OQi 

icooa 

CO OQ 
OOOO 




a great deal of labor and expense to lay it bare, but there is 
no other way out of it. A practical method for testing a 
suction-pipe is to put a blank flange over the lower joint in 
the water, a similar one on the delivery-flange of the pump, 



SUCTION- AND DELIVERY-PIPES. 



IOI 



fill the suction-pipe and pump with water, insert in any con- 
venient place in the suction-pipe a pressure-gauge, then with 
a small hand force-pump, unless another source of pressure 
is had, get up a pressure of say 50 to 60 pounds per square 
inch, and then shut off the force-pump connection with this 
pressure on the suction-pipe and pump. Now watch the 
pointer on the dial of the pressure-gauge, and if it loses 
pressure it is certain that a leak exists somewhere ; nothing 
now remains but to search it out and fix it. 

If the suction-pipe is not in a covered trench, but accessible 
throughout its length to the water-supply, a leak can readily 




^ ss \\\\\ \\\\\\ \\\\\\v\\\vs\v^v^v^^\n^^ 



be discovered when the pump is in use by the sound of the 
air rushing into the pipe ; having thus located the joint, for 
that is where the leak is likely to occur, the exact location of 
the hole or leak can generally be found by means of a lighted 
candle, the in-rushing air diverting the flame towards the hole 
in the pipe, if held near enough to be so influenced. Suction- 
pipes should be provided with a strainer, to keep out floating 
matter, such as twigs, leaves, fish, etc., if the supply be had 
from a stream or a pond. 



A strainer may be made in any one of a variety of ways, 
and answer the purpose for which it is intended. A wooden 
or iron skeleton framing covered with wire-cloth of say ^-inch 
or ^-inch mesh, carefully fitted around the bottom of the 

9* 



102 



PUMPIXG MACHINERY. 



Fig. 96. 



suction-pipe and securely fixed in the stream, makes a good 
strainer. A simple and effective strainer for small pipes is 
shown in Fig. 93. It is nothing more than a thin pipe, 
enough larger in diameter than the suction-pipe as to present 
a sufficient area of opening through the holes in its outer 

surface. There should be no holes in the 
bottom. The combined area of these 
holes should in no case be less than three 
times the area of the suction-pipe ; and if 
the holes are likely to be covered by leaves, 
the area should be four times that of the 
suction-pipe. A vertical or slanting side 
to a strainer is always to be preferred, be- 
cause it is less likely to retain leaves, etc., 
on the strainer after the flow of water had 
ceased at the stoppage of the pump. 

It is frequently the case that a strainer 
cannot be conveniently reached for cleaning 
if attached to the end of the suction-pipe. 
There would, then, be an advantage in 
placing it near or attaching it to the pump. 
The arrangement shown in Fig. 94 is a 
good one for small pipes, but for large 
pipes the strainer should be horizontal, 
and may be placed at any convenient 
location between the source of water- 
supply and the pump. Such a strainer is 
illustrated in Fig. 95. 

A combined strainer and vacuum- cham- 
ber is shown in Fig. 96. Like the former, 
the strainer-basket inside can be readily 
taken out and cleaned. As the outlet attaches directly to the 
pump, no better place could be selected for the vacuum- 
chamber than the top flange of the side-pipe which holds the 
strainer ; this chamber is provided at the top with a screw 
plug, so that, should it be necessary to charge the pump 
with water, as is often the case with long suction-pipes not 




SUCTION- AND DELIVERY-PIPES. 



103 



wholly tight, it can easily be done through the opening thus 
provided. 

The strainer shown in Fig. 97 has a semicylindric vessel 
located on one side of the side-pipe. Holes are drilled 



Fig. 97. 




\ 



00000000000 
000 0000 000 
0000 0000 000 
000 o 000 000 

OOO OOOOOO "> o 

000 OOOOOOO 
00 00000000c 

00 00000000 
00 000000000 

0000000000 
00000000000 

00 00000000 
00 000000000 

0000000000 
00 000000000 

0000000000 
00 000000000 

00 00000000 
00 OOOOOOOOO 

OOO OOOOOOO 
OOOO OOO O OOO 

OOO O OOOOOO 
00 OO OOOOOOO 

OOOOOOOOOl, 
OO OOOOOOOOO 



<N{ \J\J \J W W \J WW WW W K\ 



Fig. 98. 



through the flat side extending across the diameter of the 
side-pipe ; any floating matter which will not pass through 
the holes collects in the strainer-vessel and can be quickly 
removed. This is a more substantial arrangement than those 
illustrated above, but it is more expensive to make, because a 
larger diameter of side-pipe is necessary to get the same area of 
opening that could be 
secured through the 
meshes of a wire-cloth 
basket. 

A foot-valve 

should be attached to 
all suction-pipes when- 
ever of unusual length, or lift of water. In selecting a valve, 
be sure that a clear water-way is had through the seat of at 
least the area of the pipe with which it is to be used. Fig. 98 





io4 



PUMPING MACHINERY. 




is the common design, as sold in all supply stores, for com- 
bined foot-valves and strainers in all sizes up to 4-inch wrought- 
iron pipe. 

A sectional elevation of a common form of butterfly-valve 
is shown in Fig. 99. Foot-valves of this type are usually 

fitted with leather-faced 
clack-valves seating on a 
tool-finished cast-iron bot- 
tom or seat. The hinged 
valves are usually secured 
by the same centre-pin, or 
through-going bolt, stops 
being provided so that 
when a full water-way is 
had the valves cannot fall 
back, but must return, 
each to its own seat. 

Foot-valve castings 
should be amply strong, 
so that any delivery leak- 
age past the valves in the pump into the suction-pipe would 
not split the foot-valve. 

On large water-works valves it is quite a common practice 
to put a safety- or relief-valve on the side of the foot-valve 
casing or shell; this relief-valve being loaded or set for a 
pressure less than that which would endanger either the foot- 
valve or the suction-pipe, both of which are generally made 
lighter than pressure pipes or valves for the same size or diam- 
eter. This relief-valve is not intended to be anything else than 
simply a leak in the suction-pipe, set to a certain known press- 
ure, to prevent an accumulation of* a higher pressure danger- 
ous to the suction-pipe or foot-valve. This relief-valve need 
not be a large one ; an inch-and-a-half valve will answer for 
an 8- or 10-inch pipe, and a two-inch valve for a 12- or 14- 
inch pipe. 

A foot-valve with a single india-rubber disk held between 
metal plates is shown in Fig. 100. This design is suitable for 



^^ss^ss^ss^sss^s^^s^s^y 



SUCTION- AND DEL I VERY- PIPES. 



105 



pipes up to 8 or 10 inches in diameter. The drawing shows 
a spindle extending both above and below the valve passing 
through bored 

guides. This FlG - I0a 

is a method 
of construction 
which the writer 
does not wholly 
favor, as it is 
difficult to get 
the upper and 
lower holes ex- 
actly in line with 
each other; but 
for a foot-valve 
having a rub- 
ber face, as 
shown in the 
engraving, the 
fitting need not 
be very exact, 
so that play 

enough can be had in the guides to allow the valve to seat 
without any binding stress on the spindle. 

The design 
shown in Fig. FlG - IQI - 

101 consists of 
a number of 
small valves 
similar in con- 
struction to 
those used in 
the water-end 
of a pump. 
This design 

is not in so common use as the valve shown in Fig. 99, 
nor does the writer regard it as favorably. Foot-valves 





io6 



PUMPING MACHINERY. 



should preferably be so designed that the seating would be by 
gravity alone, and wholly unassisted by springs. The action 

oi a foot-valve 
FlG " I02 ' is different from 

that of a pump- 
valve, which al- 
ternately rises 
and falls at each 
stroke of the 
plunger. In a 
p r o p e r 1 y-d e - 
signed pump the 
foot-valve ought 
not close from 
the moment the 
pump starts until 
it is stopped, and 
as pumps are 
often in continu- 
ous operation for 
several hours or days, the springs, if any, would be under a 
tension, the extent of which would be measured by the lift of 
the valve. 

By the use of a clack- or disk-valve seating by gravity no 
such effects can follow, no matter to what height of lift the 
valve may be subjected, and is wholly uninfluenced as to time. 
"The writer does not recommend the use of a single disk of 
india-rubber, as illustrated in Fig. 102, for use as a foot- valve, 
because the flow of the water being continuous and always in 
the same direction, the valve is forced upwards against the 
curved guard, and is likely to receive a permanent set or dish- 
ing, and is in consequence less likely to fit the flat seat tight 
enough to prevent leakage around its outer edge. 




The combined foot- valve and strainer shown in Fig. 
103 is from a design executed for the water-works at La 
Chaux de Fonds. The flat plate on the bottom of the 



SUCTION- AND DELIVERY-PIPES. 



107 



Fig. 103. 



strainer rests upon a stone foundation. The upper flange 
contains the rubber seating upon which the metal valve rests 
when the pump is not in operation. This valve has a central 
spindle passing through bored 
guides, one each in the casting 
above and that below the valve, a 
method of construction not wholly 
free of objections. In order to in- 
sure perfect alignment the upper and 
lower flanges should, after the proper 
adjustment of each other to the valve, 
be further fitted with dowel-pins, in 
order that the upper and lower 
guides may be exactly brought in 
line, if for any reason it should be 
necessary to take them apart. 

Delivery - pipes need not be 
more than one-half the area of the 
water-cylinder for any ordinary ser- 
vice. The movement of the water 
in the delivery being subject to that 
of the pump by which it is forced, 
and not to atmospheric conditions, 
makes the problem one of friction 
only, and this amounts to so small 

a fraction of the total friction that it is seldom taken into 
account. In fact, it is quite an unusual thing to ascertain 
experimentally what the friction-loss in the water-end of a 
pump really is. The allowance usually made to cover the 
friction-loss in the distributing system is large enough to 
include that of the pump also. 

The sizes for delivery-pipes as given in Table V. are those in 
very common use, and as the permissible velocity of discharge 
is 400 feet per minute, it will be seen that for all except the 
first size the dimensions are very liberal. For use in a 
factory system the diameters of the delivery-pipes in all pumps 




io8 



PUMPING MACHINERY. 









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SUCTION- AND DELIVERY-PIPES. 



109 



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IIO PUMPING MACHINERY. 

having water-cylinders 6 to 14 inches diameter, both inclusive, 
could safely be reduced, beginning with a 3^-inch delivery- 
pipe on the 6-inch pump, and ending with an 8-inch delivery- 
pipe for the 14-inch pump. 

Duplex pumps with water-cylinders 8, 10, 12, and 14 inches 
diameter are in common use in small water-works, and there 
should be no reduction in the diameters of the delivery-pipes 
for such a service. 

How far vertically and horizontally can water be 
sucked at a definite speed by a common bucket- or ram- 
pump ? This question was answered by Mr. James McCreath 
in a paper read before the Mining Institute of Scotland in 
1883, from which the following abstract is made : 

The sucking of water being dependent on the pressure of 
air, we may, for all practical purposes, consider air as a perfect 
gas. The pressure which the atmosphere exerts is never 
much less, at the level of the sea, than will support a column 
of water 32 feet high, and for every 262 feet above sea-level 
the pressure is about one-hundredth of itself less, according 
to Rankine. 

The proportion of the height of 32 feet to which water can 
be raised in a pump depends upon the proportion of air within 
the pump which the pump can extract, and this depends upon 
its proportions. For example : A pump the bucket of which 
at top of stroke is 20 feet above the level of the water, the 
length of stroke being 2 feet and the clack being 16 feet above 
the water, can never suck the water up to the clack, because 
at the bottom of the stroke the air-pressure must be slightly 
more than that of the atmosphere, and at the top of the stroke, 
the air there occupying double the space, the pressure must 
be slightly more than half of that, and therefore the water 
will not rise to quite the half of 32 feet, which it would require 
to do to reach the clack. If the pump be filled with water 
from the outside, it will raise water until air again collects in it. 

The following are examples of what the utmost rarefaction 
of air producible by various lengths of stroke and distances 



SUCTION- AND DELIVERY PIPES. 



I I I 



between bucket and clack can do, 32 feet of water being 
taken as equivalent to the atmospheric pressure : 



WITH THE LOW CLACK. 

Greatest Height of Bucket at 
Top of Stroke above Water 
in Well which will admit of 
Water being raised. 

X 3 2 = 3 2 2/32 = 11. 3 feet. 

X 32 = 64 . 2 v 7 64 = 16 " 



Length of Stroke 
in Feet. 



Length of Stroke 
in Feet. 



WITH THE HIGH CLACK. 

Distance between Bucket 
and Clack-Valves at 
Bottom of Stroke. 



Height Water will raise 
to Clack. 



y 2 x 32 = 16 

% x 32 = 21^ 



Fig. 104. 



This raises water only to the clack. Very little of a longer 
stroke would raise it to the bucket, for the air-space to be 
exhausted lessens as the water rises above the clack ; but some 
allowance must be made for the water 
returning through the valve while it is 
closing, provided a sufficient pause at 
end of stroke be not made to let it fall. 

If the water get above the bucket, 
either by suction or by being filled from 
the outside, and the bucket be steadily 
raised, the w r ater will in time follow the 
bucket until it reaches 32 feet above 

but if it does 
of course no 



the water in the well ; 
not reach the bucket, 
water will be pumped. 



The height to which water will 
rise in a ram-pump may be calcu- 
lated in the same way, the space under 
and around the ram being reduced to an 
equivalent length of pipe of the diam- 
eter of the ram between the bucket and the clack. Provision 
ought also to be made for the escape of air remaining around 
the ram above the level of the exit-pipe. 




112 PUMPING MACHINERY. 

It will thus be seen that the capacity of an ordinary pump 
to clear itself of air depends directly upon the length of the 
stroke, and, within certain limits, inversely as the distance 
between the bucket and the clack. 

Weisbach gives the following rules obtained by 
experiment for the loss of energy of flowing water : 

1. When flowing through short tubes whose diameter is 
equal to their length, the water is contracted to 0.61 of the 
area of the tube. 

2. When passing round an elbow at right angles, 0.984 of 
(or very nearly the whole) head corresponding to the velocity 
is lost. 

3. When passing round a circular bend, whose radius of 
curvature is to the radius of the cross-section of the pipe as 10 
is to 4, the loss of head is equal to about \ of that correspond- 
ing to the velocity. 

4. When passing through a valve similar to that shown in 
Fig. 104, where the cross-section of the aperture to that of the 
pipe is 0.535, the co-efficients of resistance are as follows: 

Angle of opening 1 5 

Co-efficients of resistance . . 90 

Angle of opening 40 

Co-efficients of resistance . . 14 

Let the foregoing rules be applied to a bucket-pump having 
bends under the clack, as shown in Fig. 105, the length of 
pipe from the bottom of the suction-pipe to the bucket at half- 
stroke = 100 feet, the height of the bucket at the top of the 
stroke above the surface of the water in the well = 20 feet, 
and above the clack at the bottom of the stroke = 4 feet, the 
stroke =5 feet, and speed required, 12 strokes a minute, the 
pump being driven by a crank whose rotating motion is uni- 
form. 

In order to find whether a pump can clear itself of 
air, assume that the weight of the bucket-valve be such as to. 



20° 


25 


30 








62 


42 


30 


20 






45° 


50 


55° 


6o° 


65 


70 


9-5 


6.6 


4.6 


3-2 


2-3 


i-7 



SUCTION- AND DELIVERY-PIPES. 



113 



reduce the effective stroke for air to 4^ feet, and the weight of 
the clack-valve and the slip of water past the valve to take 6 
inches from the column of water capable of being raised. The 
length of the stroke, 
4% feet divided by 9 
feet, the distance be- 
tween the clack and 
the bucket at top of 
stroke, gives extraction 

4% 



To j> o f stroke 



of 



X 32 



and deducting 6 



feet, 

inches for weight of 
clack-valve and for 
slip, leaves 16 feet 6 
inches which the water 
would rise to the clack. 
But the bucket at bot- 
tom of stroke is only 
1 5 feet above the water 
in the well, and there 
is, therefore, a large 
margin to cover im- 
perfections in the 
pump. 



In order to ascer- 
tain whether the water will 
follow the bucket at its speed, 
let the resistances be first ascer- 
tained, and then the time required 
to fill the working-barrel with the 
remaining pressure. 



•Bo+to-m of Si robe. 




The mean velocity of the pump assumed is 2 feet per 
second, and the resistances at this velocity are, — 



IO 1 



114 PCMFLXG MACHINERY. 



Loss of Head 
in Feet. 
I0O\ 2 



/ \y IOO \ 
Snore-holes and turn into pipe when sum of ") ( 2 X -r— \ 

area of snore-holes = area of suction of pipe J -? = o. 167 

2 2 

Circular bend . v i = 0.012 

64.4 ° 

Square elbow — 0.062 

64.4 

Valve at 20 _?1 X 62 = 3.857 

64.4 

Friction of the water in the pipes, say of 1 2 inches diameter = o. 1 65 
Total resistance due to square of mean velocity . . . . = 4.263 

Weisbach shows that the resistance is as the mean square 
of velocity, and that in a uniformly accelerated or uniformly 
retarded motion this is twice the square of the mean velocity, 
and in a crank motion 1. 645 times the square of the mean 
velocity. Assume, meanwhile, that the water follows the 
bucket, the total resistance will be equivalent to 4.2635 X 
1.645, equivalent to a head of about 7 feet. The bucket at 
bottom of stroke being 15 feet above the water in the well, 
the pressure at first for raising the water and overcoming 
resistances is equivalent to 17 feet; but deducting 7 feet for 
resistances, the pressure available for giving motion to the 
water will be only 10 feet. 

Taking the following approximate formula for time of fill- 
ing the working-barrel (with the acceleration modified), suit- 
able where the extremes of acceleration do not vary greatly, 
we have, — 

v 



1/ height [Z w 10 — 2.s 

Time = 2 V, «J° - A , r— = v\ 6 4-4 X ^-=2.034 

y twice the mean acceleration 2 y ioo 

seconds. 

But the time the bucket takes to make the half-stroke is 
2*4 seconds, so that there is nearly half a second to cover the 
imperfections of the pump and any hinderance there may be 
at the beginning of the stroke from the interference of the 
bucket with the motion of the water. If an attempt be made 
to drive the pump at 17 strokes, the water will lag behind the 



SUCTION- AND DELIVERY- PIPES. 



"5 



bucket, and they will meet on the return stroke, the water 
moving with a velocity of about 4.8 feet per second and the 
bucket with a velocity of about 1.66 feet per second, together 
about 6.46 feet per second. 

If the water were so far behind the bucket as to meet it 
at half-stroke, a much more serious shock would arise, because 
in addition to the momentum of the water the momentum 
of machinery at a higher velocity, backed by the steam- 
pressure, would have to be met. 

The diagram, Fig. 106, will show the relative motions of 
the bucket and the water, supposing the average resistance to 



Fig. 106. 



i% Sirol\es per min . 
Tzme=Z.S sec. 




Z Zi 



1 


TZirokes 


■per mi 


in. 




Txr>-ie=y .76 See 


i 






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1 
1 
1 






j 


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/ / 








/ / 






/ 








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/76 



be uniform. The speed of the water would, however, if un- 
retarded, be actually greater at the beginning of the stroke, 
and it will be less at the middle of the stroke ; the top will 
therefore be reached a little later than shown. 

The foregoing calculations show that the largest resistance 
is due to the clack-valve, and therefore special attention 
requires to be given to find a valve giving little resistance 



Il6 PUMPING MACHINERY. 

when either the height or distance which the water has to be 
sucked is such as to raise a doubt of the pump working well. 
What would be still more effective would be to double the 
area of the pump and drive at half the speed, and so reduce 
both the resistances and the work lost in the motion of the 
water to a fourth. With the pump already instanced the same 
quantity of water could be sucked 680 feet as freely with a 
17-inch bucket and pipes going 6 strokes a minute as could 
be done 100 feet with a 12-inch bucket and pipes going 12 
strokes a minute; and if, in addition, the stroke could be 
lengthened downwards 4 feet, retaining the same velocity, the 
water could easily be drawn 141 5 feet. 

The calculation of pressure caused by a shock in 
punips may be obtained as follows : Calculate the 
amount of work in compressing the water and extending the 
pipe, which would be equivalent to the work due to the fall of 
the water, keeping in view that a load suddenly applied to an 
elastic substance will produce double the strain that the same 
load would do if applied gradually. 

This may be illustrated in the case of a spring-balance and 
a half-pound weight. If the weight be put suddenly in the 
balance x it drops down until the index shows nearly a pound 
of pressure, and then rebounds, and, as it oscillates alternately 
above and below the position of the half a pound of steady 
load, gives a very good illustration of what is called a " live 
load." 

Example from Actual Experience. — The height of a 
column of w T ater is 339 feet; diameter of pipe, 26 inches. A 
bucket-piece was broken by the water being suddenly stopped 
when descending with a velocity of 5 feet per second. 
Thickness of pipe, 1 y^ inches. We may take the compressi- 
bility of water at ywt,T5T °^ itself for each pound of steady 
load; extensibility of iron ttvotovooT °^ i tse ^^ or each pound 
of steady load. Weight of water = 147 pounds per square 
inch. 



SUCTION- AND DELIVERY-PIPES. I 1 7 

Let it be assumed first that the work due to the fall has to 
be met wholly by the compression of the water, then 

The work due to velocity of 5 feet \ , lf r . . 

y 2 I == ultimate pressure X amount 

— X weight of I foot of water [ of compression. 

2g ) 

25 X X 

64.4 •* ' 4j 3 2 ^ 294,000 

x = 314 pounds per square inch. 

This is the ultimate pressure required to meet the momen- 
tum of the water if moving horizontally, but the column 
above referred to being vertical, it has upon contact the 
additional compressing force due to a sudden application of a 
load of 147 pounds, — viz. : 

Double the weight applied = 294 pounds. 

Add pressure due to stopping 5 feet velocity = 314 " 

Total pressure if work be met only by water = 608 " 

The work, however, is partially met by the stretching of the 
iron pipe, and the proportions borne by each are : 

Work on Water. Work on Iron. 

26" X 26" X 3 I416 X : 26" X 3-I4I6 X -VX - : : -00085 : 

^ 4 / 294,000 ' XJ 3£ 17,000,000 J 

.0000168 ; and 8668 : 608 : : 168 : 12. The total actual theoretical pressure is 

therefore 608 — 12 = 596 pounds per square inch. 

Proportion borne by Iron. 
Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. 
We have thus, required to stop velocity of 5 feet . . . .314 — 6 = 308 

And double the weight of column 294 — 6 = 288 

Total pressure due to the fall 59^ 

This is the simplest form of shock. When a bucket or 
ram is suddenly stopped in descending, the calculation becomes 
more complicated from the working-barrel being partly 
occupied by iron or wood,* which are respectively 60 and 6 
times less compressible than water, and from the momentum 
of the machinery backed by the steam-pressure having also to 
be met. The calculation, however, of this simple shock 

* In mining-pumps only. 



Il8 PUMPING MACHINERY. 

makes more intelligible the thickness of iron practically found 
necessary in pumps, keeping in view that repeated shocks 
weaken cast iron by a half. It likewise shows that the press- 
ure due to the shock depends upon the velocity of the water 
when suddenly stopped and the resistance to compression of 
itself and the resistance to extension of the vessel containing 
it, and as in an ordinary pressure-gauge the velocity of the 
water and the resistance to extension of the vessel containing 
it are both less than in the working-barrel, the pressure 
indicated must also be less. 

Air-vessels will be found useful in lessening shocks 
in pumps ; but it would appear that within the working- 
barrel they cannot do so to the extent generally supposed. 
The time taken to compress water sufficiently to stop a 5-feet 
velocity and raise 314 pounds is only 30 \ part of a second. 
This time must elapse before the water below the air-vessel 
can begin to flow back, and the extent to which the water 
above the air-vessel can be relieved of the shock due to its 
velocity must depend on the quantity of water in the air- 
vessel and the direction and rate of its motion at the instant, 
as well as the quantity of air, because the quicker the change 
of motion and the larger the mass of the water the greater 
the force required, and an abrupt change of motion requires 
an infinite force. If there be one foot in length of water be- 
tween the main column and the vessel, and that at rest at the 
beginning of the shock, it will attain the same velocity as the 
descending water when .866 of the full compression due to 
the shock has been reached ; and the pressure will probably not 
much exceed this proportion thereafter at or above the entrance 
to the vessel, provided there be sufficient air above the water. 

About ij4 feet of air would suffice for a shock capable of 
producing a pressure of 600 pounds per square inch. No 
substantial relief would be given if two feet of water inter- 
venes between the main column and the air in the vessel. 
Water may be much more readily driven in or out of the air- 
vessel to or from the bucket than can the whole column of 



SUCTION- AND DELIVERY-PIPES. 1 19 

water be moved, because the mass of water to be moved by 
the same pressure is much less, and probably the air-vessel is 
as useful in driving the water downwards to fill a vacancy 
and so permit the fall of the column above as in forming a 
cushion for the fall. 

Pumping Hot Water. — Experiences are not wanting in 
which the difficulty of pumping hot water has been made 
clearly manifest, but recorded experiments as to its practical 
limitations are quite rare. It has been the author's practice 
to always insist that water having a temperature higher than 
120 shall flow into the suction-chamber of the pump; if this 
be done the matter then becomes simply one of a proper 
selection of pump and valves. 

Mr. H. J. Coles, Inst. C. E., London, made some experi- 
ments, the results of which were embodied in a paper presented 
to the above institution, an abstract of which is here given : 

" The depth from which hot water of a given temperature 
may be pumped can be theoretically deduced from the formula 

a B C 
\o g .p = A-- t --, 

and the inverse of the above 



i_ I ( A-\og.p _B*\ 



in which p = absolute pressure, / = absolute temperature, 
and ABC are constants. Both formulas are quoted from 
page 283 of Rankine's ' Rules and Tables ;' or the same results 
may be more readily obtained from Regnault's Tables given 
at page 263, ' Ganot's Physics' (third edition). 

" Having had, however, frequent inquiries as to what could 
be done in actual practice by donkey-pumps for feeding 
boilers from hot-wells, etc., and supposing that possibly suf- 
ficient vapor might be evolved from the water at lower tem- 
peratures than those ascertained by the above rules to dimin- 
ish seriously the quantity pumped, the author carried out a 
series of experiments to obtain actual results. 

" The donkey-pump employed was single-acting, having a 



120 



PUMPING MACHINERY. 



ram 3 inches in diameter, with a length of stroke of 7 inches. 
The pump was elevated to various heights ; but the results 
being so nearly alike, allowing for difference in height and 
temperature, the table given below for 15 feet may be taken as 
typical of all. The supply-tank stood on the ground, the 
water in it being heated by a jet of steam. The suction-pipe 
was led direct to the valve-box with only one bend, and the 
delivery-tank was elevated to about the same level as the 
pump, the water being discharged through a valve loaded to 
60 pounds per square inch. A large cock, fitted to the bottom 
of the delivery-tank, was kept open while the speed of the 
pump was being regulated, and was shut as soon as the trial 
commenced. A certain depth of water always existed in the 
tank while the cock was open ; this was carefully gauged and 
deducted at the end of the trial. The speed of the pump was 
regulated as nearly as possible to that given in the first column, 
and on each trial, as soon as the exact number of strokes was 
completed, the pump was stopped. 

" It will be seen that the results agree closely with those 
given by the above rules, the falling off in the quantity at the 
higher temperatures being most probably due to the friction 
of the water in passing through the pipes, valves, etc. It will 
also be observed that the speed of the pump had to be reduced 
for the higher temperatures, the speeds stated in the list being 
found to give the best results. 

TABLE VII. 



RESULTS OF EXPERIMENT NO. 3 WITH THE PUMP 1 5 FEET ABOVE THE WATER- 
LEVEL. 



Revolutions 


Temperature, Fahrenheit. 


Hot Water pumped per Minute. 


per Minute. 


Degrees. 


Cubic Inches. 


70 


70 


3430 


70 


IOO 


3430 


70 


I20 


3430 


70 
70 
60 


I40 
l6o 
I70 


3430 
3286 
2682 


50 


l8o 


2l8o 



SUCTION- AND DELIVERY-PIPES. 



121 



" Each quantity stated is the mean of several trials. Above 
i8o° Fahrenheit scarcely any water could be pumped. Ac- 
cording to Regnault, 1S5 would be about the limiting tem- 
perature at 15 feet." 

Fig. 107. 




rooimve. 



r~\ 




A general arrangement for piping a pump is shown 
in Fig. 107, subject, of course, to such modifications as are 
necessary to adapt it to any particular location. 



122 



PUMPING MACHINERY 



The suction-pipe should be as short and direct as possible, 
and never less in diameter than the opening leading into the 
pump. A foot-valve should be used, and if a strainer is not 
attached to it there should be a strainer-box built around it 
to keep out floating-matter, fish, etc. The check-valve should 
bolt directly against the flange of the delivery-elbow. 

A charging-pipe should lead from the pressure-side of the 
check-valve into the suction-pipe. By opening the valve 
shown in the charging-pipe, the water from the reservoir or 
tank will flow into and fill the suction-pipe and the pump, thus 
expelling all the air. 

A relief-valve and pipe is shown immediately back of the 
check-valve. This valve should be opened when filling the 
suction-pipe and pump with water, in order to allow the air to 
escape. The relief-pipe should lead to a drain or any place 
where the overflow would not cause inconvenience. 

A vacuum-chamber is shown in dotted lines, together with 
a tee in the suction-pipe. This is not always necessary, but 
when it is it should be placed near the pump. If the suction- 
pipe goes into a deep well, and the distance from the well to 
the pump is short, the delivery-elbow may be changed to a 
tee, and the vacuum-chamber placed directly over the high 
lift. 

The steam-pipe should be so arranged that the water of con- 
densation, when the pump is not 
FlG - IO * running, will drain back into the 

boiler. The exhaust may be led 
to any convenient point for escape 
into the atmosphere, or it ma}* be 
used in steam coils for heating-. 

Check- valves for pumps should 

always be straight way and fitted 

with hinged or swinging valves, and 

ought to be attached directly to the 

delivery-flange of the pump, if practicable. The diameter 

should equal in size that of the delivery-opening of the pump. 




SUCTION- AND DELIVERY-PIPES. 



123 



There are several good straight-way valves now furnished the 
trade in the smaller sizes, so that there is less need than 
formerly for the employment of spindle check-valves fitted 
to seats at right angles to the flow. Fig. 108 is a sectional 
elevation of a Pratt & Cady check-valve which the writer 
has found to be quite satisfactory. Check-valves for diam- 
eters suited to 3-inch wrought-iron pipe and less should 
always be made of tough brass. For larger sizes a good de- 
sign is shown in Fig. 109. It will be observed that the valve- 
face is nearly at 

• 1 1.1 FlG - 109- 

right angles to the 

flow ; the position 
of the fulcrum and 
the angle of the 
valve-face insures 
prompt return to 
its seat. Such 
valves are regu- 
larly made in all 
sizes, from 4 inches 
to 24 inches diam- 
eter of opening ; 
larger sizes are 
made to order, and 
have usually two 
or more rectangu- 
lar hinged valves, rather than one large one. The shell and 
valve are of cast iron ; the valve is faced with leather and held 
in place by a brass ring or plate underneath ; throughgoing 
rivets securely fasten all three together, a detail not shown in 
the drawing. 




124 



PUMPIXG MACHINERY. 



TABLE VIII. 

PRESSURE OF WATER. 

The Pressure of Water in Pound-; per Square Inch for even* Foot in Height to 
300 Feet ; and then by Intervals, to 1 000 Feet Head. 





_ 




_ 




_ 




_ 




:_ 




c^g 




~~ 




--. 




- 




— -~ 






-= 


- 


- 


- 


— ' 


a 


— 




<2 




- 


— 


- 


— 


CJ 


— 


- 




II 


■ 1 




\\ 


- 
= 


g - 

- - 

i - 


HI 


- ■- 




- 


-_ ft 

- - 

~ - 


~ 


c — 


~c 




- 


s ~ 


V. 


_ — 


t> 


- — 


T '~ 


:- s. 


■~ 


£X 


.- 


fcui 


'^ 






- S. 


















175 




I 


o.43 


44 


I9.05 


^7 


37.6S 


130 


56.31 


74-94 


2 


0.86 


45 


19.49 


88 


38.12 


151 


56.7- 


174 


75 37 


3 


1.30 


46 


19.92 


89 


38.55 


132 


57-i8 


175 


75.80 


4 


1-75 


47 


20.35 


90 


38.98 


^33 


57-6i 


176 


76.23 


5 


2.16 


48 


20.79 


9" 


39-42 


"34 


58.04 


177 


76.67 


6 


2-59 


49 


21.22 


92 


39-85 


■35 


58.48 


"78 


77.10 


7 


3-03 


5o 


21.65 


93 


40.28 


136 


58.91 


179 


77-53 


8 


5--- 


51 


22.09 


94 


40.72 


137 


59-34 


1 So 


77-97 


9 


389 


52 


22.52 


95 


41-15 


138 


59-77 


181 


78.40 


10 


4-33 


53 


22.95 


96 


41.58 


139 


60.21 


182 


78.84 


11 


4-76 


54 


23-39 


97 


42.01 


140 


60.64 


183 


79.27 


12 


5.20 


55 


23.82 


98 


42.45 


141 


61.07 


184 


79.70 


13 


5-63 


56 


24.26 


99 


42.88 


142 


61.51 


1S5 


80.14 


U 


6.06 


57 


24-69 


100 


43-3" 


143 


61.94 


l>: 


8057 


15 


6.49 


58 


25.12 


101 


43-75 


144 


62.37 


187 


MOO 


16 


6-93 


59 


25-55 


102 


44.18 


145 


62.81 


188 


81-43 


17 


;y 


60 


25-99 


"03 


44.61 


146 


63-24 


1S9 


Si. 87 


IS 


7.79 


61 


26.42 


104 


4505 


147 


63-67 


190 


82.30 


19 


8.22 


62 


26.85 


105 


45-48 


148 


64.10 


191 


82.73 


20 


5.5~ 


63 


27.29 


106 


45-9" 


149 


64-54 


192 


8317 


21 


9.09 


64 


27.72 


107 


4 6 -34 


150 


64.97 


193 


83.60 


22 


9-53 


65 


28.15 


108 


46.78 


151 


65.40 


194 


84-03 


2 3 


?-y- 


66 


28.58 


109 


47.21 


152 


65.84 


195 


S4-47 


24 


10.39 


67 


29.02 


no 


47.64 


155 


66.27 


196 


84.90 


25 


10.82 


68 


29-45 


III 


48.08 


154 


66 70 


197 


85-33 


26 


n.26 


69 


29.88 


112 


48.51 


155 


67.14 


198 


85.76 


27 


11.69 


70 


30.32 


"3 


48.94 


I 5 6 


67-57 


199 


86.20 


28 


12 12 


7i 


30-75 


114 


49-38 


157 


68.00 


200 


86.63 


29 


1255 


:- 


3I.I8 


115 


49.81 


158 


68.43 


201 


87-07 


30 


12.99 


75 


31.62 


Il6 


5024 


!59 


68.87 


202 


87-50 


3i 


1342 


74 


32-05 


117 


50.6S 


160 


69 3 1 


203 


87-93 


32 


13.S6 


75 


32.48 


11S 


51.11 


161 


69-74 


204 


88.36 


33 


14.29 


76 


32.92 


119 


51-54 


162 


70.17 


205 


88.80 


34 


14.7- 


77 


33-35 


120 


51.98 


163 


70 61 


206 


89.23 


35 


15.16 


78 


33-7> 


121 


52-4I 


164 


71.04 


207 


89.66 


36 


1559 


79 


34-21 


122 


52.84 


165 


71-47 


208 


90.10 


37 


16 02 


80 


34-65 


123 


53-2S 


I:: 


71.91 


209 


90-53 


38 


16.45 


81 


35-08 


124 


53-71 


I6 7 


72.;^ 


210 


90.96 


39 


16.S9 


82 


35-52 


125 


54.15 


168 


72.77 


211 


91-39 


40 


1732 


83 


35-95 


126 


54-58 


169 


73.20 


212 


9183 


41 


1775 


84 


36.39 


127 


55.01 


170 


73.64 


213 


92.26 


42 


18.19 


85 


36.82 


128 


55 44 


171 


7407 


214 


92 69 


43 


1862 


86 


57-25 


129 


55-88 


172 


74-5o 


215 


93-13 



SUCTION- AND DELIVERY-PIPES. 



125 



TABLE VIII.— {Continued.) 





M 




- 




u 




la 




u 




S.J3 












Q.- c 
t* 






-0 


C 


■0 


a 


-6 


a 


-a 


s 


T3 


a 


rt 




nl 




rt 




a 




tri 


t—i 


U 


a. « 


U 


u v 


u 


£ « 


V 


V u 


<U 


SJ D 


X 


3 x 


X 


3 u 


X 


2 rt 


X 


3. l. 


X 


5) rt 




■si 3 




ui 3 




En 3 




t/i 3 




(/) 3 


m 


1) o 4 


D 


<u a* 


u 


m a- 


V 


oi cr 1 


0) 


0) o* 


fa 


£" 


V 

fa 


£« 


u 
fa 


fa W 


u 

fa 


fiM 


fa 


fa^ 


2l6 


93-56 


237 


102.60 


258 


III. 76 


279 


120.85 


300 


129.95 


217 


93-99 


238 


103.09 


259 


112. 19 


280 


121.29 


3IO 


134.28 


2l8 


94-43 


239 


I03.53 


260 


112.62 


28l 


121.72 


320 


138.62 


219 


94.86 


24O 


103.96 


26l 


H3.06 


282 


122.15 


33° 


142.95 


220 


95-3° 


24I 


104.39 


262 


H3-49 


283 


122.59 


340 


147.28 


22 1 


95-73 


242 


104.83 


263 


H3.92 


284 


I23.O2 


350 


151.61 


222 


96.16 


243 


105.26 


264 


II4.36 


285 


12345 


360 


155-94 


223 


96.60 


244 


105.69 


265 


II4.79 


286 


I23.89 


370 


160.27 


224 


97-03 


245 


106.13 


266 


115.22 


287 


I24.32 


380 


164.61 


225 


97.46 


246 


106.56 


267 


115.66 


288 


124-75 


390 


168.94 


226 


97.90 


247 


106.99 


268 


II6.O9 


289 


I25.I8 


400 


173-27 


227 


98.33 


248 


107.43 


269 


II6.52 


290 


125.62 


500 


216.58 


228 


98.76 


249 


107.86 


270 


II6.96 


291 


126.05 


600 


259.90 


229 


99.20 


250 


108.29 


271 


H7.39 


292 


I26.48 


700 


303.22 


23O 


99- 6 3 


251 


108.73 


272 


117.82 


293 


I26.92 


8OO 


346.54 


23I 


100.06 


252 


109.16 


273 


II8.26 


294 


127.35 


900 


389.86 


232 


100.49 


253 


109.59 


274 


II8.69 


295 


I27.78 


IOOO 


433-iS 


2 33 


100.93 


254 


IIO.03 


275 


II9. 12 


296 


128.22 






234 


101.36 


255 


IIO.46 


276 


II9.56 


297 


128.65 






235 


101.79 


256 


IIO.89 


• 277 


II9.99 


298 


I29.08 






236 


100.23 


257 


III.32 


278 


I20.42 


299 


I29.5I 







126 PUMPING MACHINERY. 



CHAPTER VII. 



WATER-END DESIGN. 



This subject has already been touched upon, and especially 
in the chapter on valves, as the latter detail is so intimately 
connected with water-end design that it is not easy to sepa- 
rate them. The illustrations given in this chapter are so 
nearly self-explanatory that little descriptive matter will be 
necessary. The writer regrets that the small size of the en- 
gravings necessary to their insertion in a printed page of the 
dimensions selected for this publication would not permit of 
both scale and dimensioned drawings to be given, but the 
illustrations themselves represent designs now in successful 
use, so that the mere fact of such presentation in convenient 
form will probably not fail to be useful to engineers and others 
not interested in the design and manufacture of pumping 
machinery, but who are desirous of knowing the interior ar- 
rangement of the pumps now offered by builders to the 
general public. 

Length of Stroke and Piston-Speed. — In ordinary 
short-stroke pumps the capacity of the water-end is limited 
not so much to the piston-speed in feet per minute as by the 
number of times a valve can safely and noiselessly open and 
close in a given time. To assume ioo feet per minute as an 
ordinary speed for pumps has been a time-honored practice ; 
it is obvious, however, that for short strokes it imposes an 
injurious rate of speed, to which a pump should not, in regular 
service, be subjected. For example, a pump having 



WATER-END DESIGN. 



127 



3-inches stroke must make 400 strokes per minute. 

4 " " " 

5 " 

6 " " " 



300 




44 CI 


240 




44 « 


200 




a (< 


171 


+ 


44 (« 


150 




41 41 


120 

inn 




44 44 
44 (4 



10 " " " 

12 " " " 

As the above list of strokes represents lengths commonly 
in use, it needs no argument to show the impracticability of the 
ioo-feet basis of comparison; for pumps having a stroke of 
six inches and less, the number of strokes as given above is 
too great for continuous service. 

TABLE IX. 

SPEED AND CAPACITY OF PUMPS. 

A piston-speed of 100 feet per minute is considered an ordinary speed for direct- 
acting pumps. But in boiler-feeding, pumping under heavy pressure, or moving 
hot liquids, a slower speed is advisable. In fire-pumps, on the contrary, where a 
high velocity and large volume are imperative, the speed may exceed 200 feet 
per minute, if the valve area of the pump is sufficiently large. 

THEORETICAL CAPACITY OF IOO FEET SPEED OF PISTON OR PLUNGER PER 

MINUTE. 







t<H 




u- 











-0 


O 







-0 





-a 


ameter 
Pump or 
Plunger 
n Inches 


Gallons 
ischarge 

per 
Minute. 


iameter 
Pump or 
Plunger 
n Inches 


Gallons 
ischarge 

per 
Minute. 


ameter 
Pump or 
Plunger 
n Inches 


Gallons 
ischarge 

per 
Minute. 


iameter 
Pump or 
Plunger 
n Inches 


Gallons 
ischarge 

per 
Minute. 


Q 


-a 


A 


1 


Q 


T3 


Q 


•u 


I 


4.08 




36.75 


6 


147 


14 


800 


ly* 


5.16 


3% 


4313 


ey 2 


172 


15 


917 


*% 


6.38 


y/2 


50.02 


7 


200 


16 


IO44 


*y* 


7.71 


3% 


57-42 


7K 


229 


18 


1321 


iy* 


9.18 


4 


65-34 


8 


26l 


20 


163I 


in 


IO.78 


A% 


73-76 


sy 2 


295 


22 


1974 


1% 


12.58 


Ar'A 


82.7 


9 


33° 


24 


2350 


i 7 A 


H-35 


4rX 


92.14 


9 X A 


368 


26 


2757 


2 


1633 


5 


102.0 


10 


408 


28 


3270 


2X 


20.67 


s% 


112. 


ioy 2 


45° 


30 


3670 


2*/ 2 


25-52 


SVz 


123.0 


11 


494 


32 


4176 


*H 


30.88 


sH 


i35-o 


12 


587 


34 


4715 



This is the theoretical performance ; practically the strokes will slightly exceed 
that number for the quantity stated. In a duplex pump the number of gallons 
delivered per minute is found by multiplying the displacement of one plunger by 
twice the number of strokes. 



128 



PUMPING MACHINERY. 



TABLE X. 

SHOWING THE NUMBER OF STROKES REQUIRED TO ATTAIN A PISTON-SPEED 
FROM 50 TO I25 FEET PER MINUTE FOR PUMPS HAVING STROKES FROM 3 
TO l8 INCHES IN LENGTH. 











Length of 


Stroke in Inch 


ES. 






Speed of Pis- 
ton in Feet 
pek Minute. 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 i 


10 


12 


15 | 


18 






.N 


UMBER 


of Strokes per 


Minute. 






50 


200 


150 


I20 


IOO 


86 


750 


60 


50 


40 


33 


55 


220 


165 


132 


IIO 


94 


82.5 


66 


55 


44 


37 


60 


240 


180 


144 


120 


103 


90.0 


72 


60 


48 


40 


65 


260 


195 


156 


130 


hi 


97-5 


78 


65 


52 


43 


70 


280 


210 


168 


140 


120 


105.0 


84 


70 


56 


47 


75 


300 


225 


180 


150 


128 


112.5 


90 


75 


60 


5o 


80 


320 


240 


192 


160 


137 


120.0 


96 


80 


64 


53 


85 


340 


255 


204 


170 


146 


127-5 


102 


85 


68 


57 


90 


360 


270 


2l6 


180 


154 


l 35-° 


108 


90 


72 


60 


95 


380 


285 


228 


190 


163 


142.5 


114 


95 


76 


63 


100 


400 


300 


240 


200 


171 


150.0 


120 


IOO 


80 


67 


105 


420 


315 


252 


210 


180 


157-5 


126 


105 


84 


70 


IIO 


440 


330 


264 


220 


188 


165.0 


132 


no 


88 


73 


ii5 


460 


345 


276 


230 


197 


172.5 


138 


"5 


92 


77 


120 


480 


360 


288 


240 


206 


180.0 


144 


120 


96 


80 


125 


500 


375 


300 


250 


214 


187.5 


150 


125 


IOO 


S3 



Aote. — To find the number of plunger displacements in a duplex pump multi- 
ply the number of strokes as given above by 2. 



Piston Water-End with Wing- Valves. — Fig. no is a 
sectional elevation of a duplex pump for feeding steam-boilers, 
or for any other service where a pressure not exceeding 1 50 
pounds per square inch may be required ; it is of the piston 
pattern, and lined with a drawn brass tube, carefully fitted and 
then forced into the bored casting, after which the ends of the 
tube are expanded by calking or riveting over a slight depres- 
sion included in the casting. The holes for the valve-seats 
may be bored with a straight taper of say 1 inch to the foot, as 
shown in the engraving, or a taper tap may be used and the 
valve-seat screwed in. This water-end represents a pump of 
2 inches bore by 4 inches stroke, and for this size it has been 
the practice to drive the valve-seats in on a taper. This draw- 
ing shows a joint immediately above the water-cylinder, and 



WATER- END DESIGN. 



129 



another joint immediately above the top of the delivery-valve 
seats, the delivery- or force-chamber completing the main parts. 
The holding-down bolts extend through from the top of the 
lugs included in the force- chamber casting, and screw into 




tapped holes in the water-cylinders below. The piston may 
be for fibrous packing, or fitted with metal rings. The valves 
are of gun- metal, as are also the seats. This drawing is 
shown with wing-valves with mitre joints. 

Piston Water-End with Ball- Valves. — Fig. 1 1 1 is the 
same water- end as described above, except that ball-valves 
and seats are fitted for the handling of thick stuffs like 
molasses, etc. 



Plunger-Pump. — A sectional elevation of a water-end 
having a plunger and ring is shown in Fig. 112. The ring 



130 



PUMPING MACHINERY. 



slides into a bored cavity in the water-cylinder and is held in 
place by bolts, one of which is shown in the drawing. The 
plunger slides through the ring, and is not provided with any 
means of adjustment for wear. The drawing is from a pump 
having plungers 4 inches in diameter by 6 inches stroke. The 

Fig. hi. 




valve-seats are screwed in ; the valves are of india-rubber for 
cold water, and may be fitted with metal valves or vulcanite 
composition, if so desired, for hot water. The delivery-valve 
seats are screwed into a valve-plate held between the water- 



end casting and the force-chamber. 



A piston water-end with a removable lining is shown 
in Fig. 113. The water-cylinder is bored at the three or more 
points of support, and the lining is turned to fit; the support 
or rib at the rear end is machine-faced, as is also the lining, 
so as to make true surfaces for bolting together. Linings 



WATER-END DESIGN. 



131 



should be made of gun-metal, and must be sound castings, 
free from imperfections and accurately bored. By a proper 
spacing of the drilling the lining can be arranged for turning 



Fig. 112. 



zzrr 



"W 




ww/M///m. 



gPgl 



WM/#J 



^7 



around in position so as to present a new wearing surface 
on the bottom, should it ever become necessary through the 
abrasive action of gritty water passing through the pump. 



132 



PUMPING MACHINERY. 



The suction- and delivery-valves are both above the piston, 
so that once the pump is charged with water it will always 
remain so. The valve-seats are intended to be screwed in. 
This drawing partially represents a duplex water-end having 
7 inches bore by 12 inches stroke. 

Fig. 113. 



jWWW^V 








^//////////A 



' '////////////A 



K\K^\\KK\\\\\\^\^ 



7; 







1 




L_1_Z _V^J £g| 



Worthington Plunger-Pump. — The sectional elevation 
of a Worthington plunger-pump, shown in Fig. 1 14, is thus 
described in their catalogue: The double-acting plunger 
shown at B works through a deep metallic packing-ring, 
bored to an accurate fit, being neither elastic nor adjustable. 
Both the ring and the plunger can be quickly taken out, and 
either refitted or exchanged for new ones at small cost, and 



I 



WATER-END DESIGN. 
Fig. 114. 



133 





fe^ 



if it be desired at any time to change the proportions be- 
tween the steam -pistons and pumps, a plunger of somewhat 

larger size, or decreased to any smaller diameter, can be 

12 



134 PUMPING MACHINERY. 

readily substituted. As exact proportions between the power 
and work are always desirable, if not necessary, this is a very 
important advantage. 

This system of renewal of the working parts has proved by 
long experience to be the least expensive and most satisfac- 
tory for ordinary work. The plunger is located some inches 
above the suction-valves to form a subsiding-chamber, into 
which any foreign substances may fall below the wearing- 
surfaces. This enables it to work longer without renewal 
than the usual form of piston-pump, especially in water con- 
taining grit or other solid material. The water enters the 
pump through the suction-chamber C, through the suction- 
valves, then passes partly around and partly by the end of 
the plunger, through the force-valves, nearly in a straight 
course, into the delivery-chamber D, thus traversing in a very 
direct and ample water-way. The bottom and top plates fur- 
nish a large area for the accommodation of the valves. These 
consist of several small disks of rubber, or other suitable 
material, easy to examine and inexpensive to replace. 

The drawing shows the usual central partition separating 
the two ends of the pump. It is the practice to bore out this 
central partition and then insert a permanent collared brass 
bushing, into which is fitted the plunger- ring, also provided 
with a collar, one side of which abuts against the bushing, 
and the other side adapted to receive a cast-iron ring for 
holding in place, this latter ring being securely held by bolts 
not shown in the drawing. 

The accumulated facts of a large and successful experience 
with plungers simply fitted into a bored ring, as compared 
with packed plungers, so clearly set forth by the late Mr. 
Worthington, cannot fail to interest the reader. His close 
study of the peculiarities of action of his duplex pump led 
him very early in his practice to adopt a metal packing-ring, 
without elasticity or provision for adjustment, a detail which, 
after forty years of continuous trial, is the only form of pack- 
ing ordinarily recommended by his successors, because noth- 
ing better has been found to take its place. Let it be noticed 



WATER-END DESIGN. 1 35 

that engines of the duplex type have little or no momentum 
to help out the stroke ; they therefore will not allow of any 
inequalities or tight places in the packing. A cylinder or a 
plunger always wears fastest in the middle of the stroke ; if 
the packing were adjusted to fit the middle, it would bind 
enough at the ends to embarrass the motion. He detected a 
tendency at times in elastic pump-packings to collapse upon a 
plunger or expand against a cylinder with such force as to 
produce much unnecessary friction. 

The wear of the plungers in the non-adjustable metallic 
rings is not as great as one might be led to suppose, and for 
reasons that will appear obvious on examination. The rings 
are made deep, and thus afford ample bearing surfaces. The 
water-ways surrounding the plungers constitute subsiding- 
chambers into which hurtful material can settle away from the 
moving parts. (See Fig. 1 14.) The protrusion into the forcing 
side of the pump of the plunger while in motion tends to 
cany away from the ring any such material that would other- 
wise be forced under it. The thin film of fluid that may enter 
the space between the ring and the plunger is only sufficient 
for proper lubrication of the parts, and reduces their frictional 
resistance to a minimum. As the pressures are reversed when 
the pump changes its stroke, little or none of this water leaks 
past the ring. 

In such cases, however, as seem, by reason of unusually 
gritty water or of excessive pressure, to demand adjustable 
packing, any one of the several designs shown in this chapter 
will give satisfaction, if the details are properly worked out. 
All of these packed plunger water-ends, except one design, 
are arranged with exterior stuffing-boxes, so that the packing 
is readily inserted and adjusted to compensate for wear. The 
stuffing-box glands act as sufficient guides or bearings for 
the plungers. All leakage in the water-cylinders is in this 
arrangement prevented, as the working parts are displayed to 
the engineer at all times. This form of water-end is largely 
used, especially in the Western States, for water-works sup- 
ply ; it is the type almost always selected for mines and for 



i3 6 



PUMPING MACHINERY. 



iron- and steel-works. Great care must be taken in the design 
and construction of pumps of this type to reduce as much as 
practicable the large loss inseparable from packed plungers 
of all forms. This loss, even under the best conditions of con- 
struction and careful packing, consumes a large percentage 
of the power applied, especially when the pump is running 
against heavy pressures. In order to diminish the friction as 
much as possible, it is recommended that the stuffing-box 
glands be screwed up no tighter than is actually necessary to 
prevent leakage. 

A piston water-end by the Erste Briinner Maschi- 

nen-Fabriks, 



Fig. 115. 




having 



Briinn, 

some of the 
characteristics 
of the Worth- 
ington water- 
end, is shown 
in Fig. 115. By 
reason of the 
working- barrel 
being included 
in the main 
casting of the 
water- end, it is 
less difficult to 
construct if the 
latter is made 
in two pieces, 
as shown in the 
drawing; it is 
true an addi- 
tional joint is 
required, but 

the facility with which the work can be done in the machine- 
shop will probably not increase the cost of the water-end. 







WATER-END DESIGN. 1 37 

This illustration is from one of a pair of pumps placed side 
by side, each pump being driven by an automatic cut-off 
engine, both of which are coupled to the same shaft, and 
have one fly-wheel in common, but each engine may with 
its own pump be operated singly if so required. The pumps 
are 1 1.9 inches diameter by 43.55 inches stroke. Each end 
of each pump has two suction- and two discharge-valves as 
shown ; the valves are 10.7 inches diameter, are of india- 
rubber, and have wrought-iron back-plates held down by 
conical spiral springs. The valves are fitted with brass bush- 
ings to reduce the wear in the central hole. The valve-gratings 
are of cast iron. The air-chamber seems very small for a 
pump as large as the one now under consideration, but it 
is supplemented by a wrought-iron " wind-chest," about 36 
inches diameter by 10 feet in height, situated to the rear of 
and central to the two water-ends. This vessel is divided into 
two chambers by a wrought-iron diaphragm, one of which acts 
as an air-vessel for the suction, the other half acting for the 
delivery. 

The plunger-pump shown in Fig. 116 is from designs by 
the author, who recognizes fully the value of a larger number 
of small valves rather than a less number of large valves, pro- 
vided the latter are of a diameter exceeding 4^ inches. The 
plunger-ring is supported at each end, in a bored recess in the 
water-cylinder, and is securely bolted to a flange which is cast 
in and forms a part of the main cylinder casting, insuring 
not only a perfect alignment, but the utmost rigidity. The 
plungers and rings are easily removed from the pump when- 
ever desired, either for examination or repairs. 

The discharge- and suction-valves are above the plungers ; 
the pump can never, therefore, lose its charge. This feature 
is believed td be of value to the user in securing prompt action 
in emergency and avoiding the danger of breakage that is in- 
curred with pumps running dry through leakage past the 
suction-valves, when the latter are located below the plungers. 
Hand-hole openings permit an easy examination of both the 

12* 



138 



PUMPING MACHINERY. 



suction- and discharge-valves, and without drawing off the 
water from the main cylinders of the pump. 



Fig. 116. 




^^^^mm§mm 



The inside-packed plunger-pump illustrated in Fig. 
117 is a modified form of the water-end just described; it 
preserves the distinctive features of the above pump, the ad- 
dition of a stuffing-box and gland, adapted for packing the 
plunger with a flexible or a fibrous packing, constituting the 
only change. This pump is chiefly desirable in localities where 
the water-supply is muddy or contains gritty matter. 

This form of pump is to be preferred over a piston-pump 
for gritty water, inasmuch as the cost of a new plunger is very 
much less than that of a new lining. There is the further 
advantage in the fact that slight reductions can be made in the 
diameter of the plunger by turning in a lathe to remove the 



WATER END DESIGN. 



139 



scoring incident to the service in which it may be employed, 
the difference in diameter being made good by the use of a 
thicker packing. 




The outside-packed plunger-pump shown in sectional 
elevation in Fig. 1 18 is still another modification of the plunger- 
pump (Fig. 1 16). Instead of the plunger-ring as there shown, 
a central diaphragm, bored to receive the rod connecting the 
two plungers, is secured by bolting in the bored recess con- 
tained in the water-cylinder. This diaphragm is not fitted 
with a stuffing-box, nor is it the common practice to include a 
brass bushing, the cast iron forming of itself a suitable mate- 
rial for resisting the very slight wear of the rod passing 



140 



PUMPING MACHINERY. 



through it. Instead of the ordinary heads, those fitted with a 
stuffing-box and gland, as shown in the drawing, are substi- 
tuted, through which the plungers slide. The plunger-rod is 
connected by a screw-joint immediately inside of the inside 
plunger. The other details are in no respect different from 
those already described. 

Outside-packed plunger-pumps are a more recent invention 
than the packed piston, their first employment being, in all 
probability, an expedient by which to obtain a weighted, ver- 



>iVUViiv,', g5 




tical, single-acting, elongated piston. This was made to pass 
through a stuffing-box having leather packing not unlike that 
used in hydraulic presses at the present time. As this device 
did not require the boring of the water-cylinder, as must be 
done in all piston-pumps, together with the fact that the op- 
eration f turning is a much simpler and cheaper method 
of manufacture, it led to the early adoption of the packed 
plunger on purely commercial principles. Aside from this, 
there is a certain satisfaction in seeing a plunger pass out and 



WATER-END DESIGN. 



141 



in a water-end, without leakage, through an adjustable stuffing- 
box ; and this, no doubt, has had its effect in giving direction 
favorable to this detail in pump design. 

The outside-packed plunger-pump with parallel 
rods, as shown in Fig. 119, is a type of pump in very 
general favor among furnace, rolling-mill, and steel-works 
managers. These pumps usually have strokes of 18 to 

Fig. 119. 




£ 



J. 



^ 










k 



24 inches, and are seldom made with plungers less than 12 
inches in diameter. The sectional elevation shows clearly 
the internal arrangement. An end elevation of this pump is 
shown in Fig. 120. The suction-pipe distributes its flow of 
water to the two sides of the pump into the space below the 



142 



PUMFING MACHINERY. 



Fig. 120. 




lower or suction-valves. The delivery is central between the 
two pumps. The air-chamber is located immediately above 

the delivery-opening. 
These pumps are 
generally used at 
pressures seldom ex- 
ceeding 75 pounds 
per square inch. 



An outside cen- 
trally- packed 
plunger - pump is 
shown in sectional 
elevation in Fig. 12 1 
and in end elevation 
in Fig. 122. For 
ordinary service, 
pumps of this design 
range in size from 
small boiler feed- 
pumps to sizes suit- 
able for water-works. 
A modification of this 
design is employed 
in mines and other 




heavier pressures than occur in domestic water-supply. This 
design includes two separate or single water-cylinders placed 
side by side, and adapted for duplex steam-cylinders and 
valve-motion. The suction-opening is at the rear end of each 
water-cylinder, the two openings being connected by a dis- 
tributing-pipe, as shown in the drawing. In this design the 
suction-valves are placed below the plunger, and the delivery- 
valves above. A delivery-pipe, connecting the two water-ends 
with air-chamber above, is shown with the flanged opening 
leading to the rear of the pumps, but it is evident that, by a 
suitable arrangement of the pattern, it can lead over either 
side if so desired. 



WATER-END DESIGN. 



143 



Differential Plunger-Pump. — The combined piston- and 
plunger-pump, commonly known as the differential plunger- 
pump, is shown in one of its various forms, in sectional ele- 
vation, in Fig. 26. The description of the working of a 
bucket- and plunger-pump, as given on page 34, is applicable 
to this design and need not be duplicated. The pump there 



Fig. 121. 



^ 



F^ 



cfl 



T 



**»>/»> 




4 sH 

228 Sfez 



W„„,, 



j &gg^Wag 



i»ti/tnm-r) 



ssS Ssst 



] ^gf5 g 




illustrated is of 12 inches stroke, and as it was designed for 
use as a sinking-pump in mining operations in which acid 
water is almost certain to be encountered, the valves were all 
included in the bottom section of the pump. This piece may 
be made wholly of gun-metal if thought desirable ; in any 



144 



PUMPING MACHINERY. 



event it is easily detached from the pump if any repairs or 
renewals are rendered necessary through the chemical action 
of acidulated water. 



Fig. 122. 




Vertical Plunger-Pump. — A sectional elevation of a ver- 
tical plunger-pump, with internal stuffing-box, is shown in 
Fig. 123, and presents several peculiarities of design which 

may be consid- 
ered good : its 
compactness, in 
which a suction 
air-chamber, suc- 
tion - pipe, and 
suction -valve 
plate are included 
in a single unit, 
as it were ; then 
the distance-piece 
to the delivery- 
valve plate 
through which 
the plunger 
works ; the cast- 
ing containing 
the delivery- 
opening, on top 
of which is placed 
the air-chamber, 
makes a good 
arrangement of 
detail for some 
certain positions 
in which height is available rather than floor-space. The 
pump is single-acting. The delivery-valve plate shows but 
two valves, but it will be understood that other valves ex- 
tend around the whole circumference on properly-spaced 
centres. 



WATER-END DESIGN. 



H5 



Fig. 123. 



A duplex piston-pump with metal clack-valves is 
shown in longitudinal sectional elevation in Fig. 124 and in 
cross-section in Fig. 125. This pump was designed by the 
writer for handling thick stuff, 
such as mash in brewing opera- 
tions. The main castings are of 
iron ; the piston, piston-rod, and 
cylinder-linings are of gun-metal ; 
the valve-seats and valves are 
hinged together, and are easily 
removable from the pump through 
the hand-hole plates opposite 
each. The lower hand - hole 
plates may be removed without 
disturbing the tension of the 
spring by a simple device secured 
by hooked bolts shown in the 
drawing. 



Piston-Pump with Wing- 
Valves on the Side. — The 

cross - sectional elevation of a 
piston-pump with valves on the 
side, as shown in Fig. 126, is of 
English design, and represents a 
type of water-end not often met 
with in this country. Aside from 
what the writer believes to be a 
defective method of guiding the 
valves by spindles projecting from 

the top of each, the design is a good one, but is not so com- 
pact and symmetrical as the single water-ends furnished by 
Knowles and other well-known builders. 




A by-pass is an attachment to the water-end of a double- 
acting pump, consisting of a pipe and gate-valve, as shown in 

the sketch, Fig. 127, the object of which is to make a direct 
g k 13 



146 



PUMPING MACHINERY. 



water connection from one end of the water-cylinder to the 
other. This attachment is useful in several respects, for 
example, in a compound pumping engine in which the high- 
pressure cylinder may not be large enough to start the load 
from a state of rest, no provision having been made for directly 




iKKKftS 



^^ ^^^ ^^^^^^ ^^ | 




m 



admitting steam of boiler-pressure in the low-pressure steam- 
chest. If, now, the by-pass valve be opened, the effect will 
be to immediately reduce the resistance to the movement of 
the plunger by allowing the water to flow through from the 



WATER-END DESIGN. 



147 



pressure side into the one which has no pressure, and thereby 
enable the engine to complete a sufficient number of strokes 
to bring the low-pressure cylinder into service ; as soon as 



Fig. 125. 







this is accomplished, the by-pass valve should then be closed 
and the engine allowed to take up its full load. 

In crank and fly-wheel engines, especially those operating 
a direct service, there occur times when the speed of the pump 
cannot be brought sufficiently low to enable the engine to 



148 



PUMPING MACHINERY. 



Fig. 126. 




properly pass the centres, but if the by-pass valve be opened, 
the speed of the engine may be increased somewhat without 
increasing the small quantity of water to be delivered. 

It will be understood that a by-pass is simply a leak under 
the control of the engineer in charge ; the size of the opening 

is not subject to 
any fixed ratio to 
plunger area, but 
it ought to be lib- 
eral, and the writer 
suggests \y 2 
inches for a 12- 
inch water - cylin- 
der, and 2 x / 2 inches 
for one 24 inches 
diameter. A gate- 
valve only should 
be used in a by- 
pass unless it is 
combined with a 
charging -pipe, in 
which case three 
valves will be re- 
quired, as shown 
in the sketch, Fig. 
127 A. The valve 
leading from the 
supply should be a 
gate- valve, and the 
two end ones may 
be angle-valves. 
That a by-pass 
is wasteful of steam is admitted, but its use is entirely one 
of expediency, and is only resorted to in cases of emer- 
gency ; so far, then, its application is justified, and should be 
included in all crank and fly-wheel water-ends intended for 
direct service. Direct-acting duplex pumps do not require 




WATER-END DESIGN. 



149 



a by-pass, as they can be run at any rate of speed, however 
slow. 

A water-end with bored valve-seats, as shown in 
Fig. 128, has been adopted by the Woodward Steam Pump 
Company. The arrows in- 



dicate the flow of the water 
through the pump when in 
action, on its forward stroke. 
A valve, the two heads cov- 
ering the end openings, the 
bolt for securing in place, are 
all so clearly shown in Fig. 
128 A as to need no further 
description. 



Fig. 127. 




1 



The loss of efficiency 
in pumps under certain conditions, in which the delivery 
is much less than was to have been expected from the calcu- 
lated displacement of the plunger and its rate of speed, is at 
best a difficult thing to trace 
pumping, in which 



So also the loss of power in 
Fig. 127 A. 



in wnicn a 
large percentage of the 
energy of the steam-end 
cannot be accounted for 
in the delivery of water 
under a given head. 
Some experiments wit- 
nessed by the writer in a 
mine of moderate depth 
(about 450 feet) showed 
by the indicator diagrams 
that nearly twenty - five 
per cent, more power was developed in the steam-end than 
could be accounted for by the indicator diagrams of the 
water-end. The pump was direct-acting, and one of many 
of the same type, this especial one having been selected in 

13* 




150 



PUMPING MACHINERY. 



Fig. 128. 




order to get a high average performance. In this case the 
suction-pipe was not of excessive length, was of large di- 
ameter, and all the conditions apparently favorable to good 
performance. 

Losses occur in pumping if the suction-valves are of such 
size or shape as not to readily admit the water into the pump- 
barrel so as to completely 
fill it by the time the 
plunger begins its return 
stroke. The plunger re- 
ceives its first shock when 
the body of water is en- 
countered and made to fill 
the space instantly under 
full pressure, and its second 
shock almost immediately 
thereafter, when the deliv- 
ery-valves must be raised 
from their seats. How 
much power is lost by these two faulty actions is not known, 
but it is considerable. 

The frictional resistance retarding the water is subject to 
three laws, — quite the reverse of friction between rigid bodies : 
I. It is proportioned to the amount of surface in contact. 

2. It is independent 
of the pressure. 

3. It is proportional 
to the square of the 
velocity. 

From the first of 

these laws it will be 

seen that the minimum 

amount of surface must be exposed to the flowing fluid ; this 

surface, for a given sectional area, will be the least when the 

section is circular. 

From the third law a greater amount of efficiency may be 
expected by allowing the water to move with a small velocity. 



Fig. 128 A. 





WATER-END DESIGN. 



151 



In decreasing the velocity at the same time to maintain a 
given supply, we must increase the surface in contact with the 
water, and thus the friction due to this cause of increased sur- 
face will be augmented ; but since the resistance of friction is 
proportional to the square of the velocity and only as the 
surface, a greater advantage in this respect will be gained. 
From this it follows that it will be advantageous to make the 
pipes as large as possible, limiting their size by other con- 
siderations, such as space, expense, etc. With regard to the 
direction of the water, any change in the direction of the flow 
must be gradually introduced. The more sudden the change, 
and the greater the angle through which it is directed, the 
greater will be the opposing resistances. 



Drainage-pipes should be attached to all water-ends 
which, by reason of exposed situation, are likely to freeze 
when not in use. Such pipes must be fitted to every portion 
of the pump in which there are water-pockets or cavities, and 
not to the two ends of the water-cylinder alone. Pumps in 
quarries and other exposed situations may have small holes 
drilled through the valve-deck plates and other portions of 
the pump, so there will be a drainage from the delivery- 
chamber through the pump to each end of the water-cylinder, 
and thus dispense with the outside pipes and cocks. These 
holes will take off a small percentage of pump efficiency, but 
their usefulness and automatic drainage will probably fully 
compensate for that. A pump so fitted should have either 
suitable priming-pipes, or a funnel attachment for filling the 
pump before starting. 






152 PUMPING MACHINERY. 



CHAPTER VIII. 



HYDRAULIC-PRESSURE PUMPS. 



The transmission of power by means of water under a high 
pressure is now generally employed in riveting, shearing, 
punching, bending, and flanging machines, as well as for the 
handling of Bessemer converters, lifts, cranes, and other 
machines in and around steel-works, ship-building, boiler- 
making, and other kindred establishments. 

There is little or no uniformity in the pressures employed 
for doing the same work in different establishments using 
hydraulic power, probably for the reason that each manage- 
ment had independently worked out the necessary hydraulic 
detail, in most cases originating the machines ; and in fixing 
upon a pressure to do the work it was generally without any 
reference to what was being done in other, and perhaps rival, 
establishments. It may be said that in steel-works and other 
metal-working plants the pressures employed for operating 
the hydraulic machinery are not often less than 500 pounds 
per square inch, and do not generally exceed 2000 pounds, 
although double this pressure is occasionally employed for 
special work. 

Some memoranda relating to pressures collected in the 
ordinary course of business show the following wide diver- 
gencies : 

Ordinary hydraulic lifts for warehouses ... 75 to 150 pounds. 

Foundry hydraulic lifts 100 " 300 " 

Hydraulic cranes 300 " 1000 " 

Flanging, punching, and riveting machines . 500 " 1500 " 

Hydraulic shears 1500 " 2500 " 

Special work ranging up to 5000 pounds per square inch. 



HYDRAULIC-PRESSURE PUMPS. 1 53 

Pressures of 1200 to 1500 pounds per square inch in 
metal-working establishments are probably oftener used than 
higher pressures, for the reason that many of the details of 
hydraulic machines can be better worked out for 1500 pounds 
pressure than for 3000 pounds, size being an important factor 
in many details, and especially in valve-gear, so that the ability 
to double the area of certain parts may be, and often is, of 
the utmost importance in the construction and successful 
operation of hydraulic machines. An instance once came 
under the notice of the writer in which a reduction of pressure 
from a proposed 4000 pounds to 2000 pounds per square inch 
determined the practicability of certain devices through no 
other reason than that a better mechanical construction could 
be had by making certain important and somewhat intricate 
detail double the area. The writer is not to be understood as 
saying that high pressures are not practicable, but rather that 
moderate pressures should be first considered before pressures 
of more than 2500 pounds are adopted. 

In reference to the relative advantage of using a moderate 
pressure with a large ram in hydraulic machines, or a high 
pressure with a small diameter, Mr. Tweddell, an hydraulic 
engineer of large experience, observes that " it must be borne 
in mind that the friction of the water was not perceptibly 
increased with the increase of pressure, and consequently there 
was no loss in using the higher pressure, which allowed of a 
more compact machine ; and practical experience has shown 
that there was no trouble in keeping pipe-joints tight at 
pressures of 1500 or 2000 pounds per square inch. At the 
same time he did not think there was any occasion for carry- 
ing such high pressures throughout the whole of a works, 
and a much lower pressure would be sufficient for working 
foundry and other hydraulic cranes ; in such cases there was 
certainly a limit to the extension of a high pressure." 

The above has reference to what may be termed live press- 
ures ; that is to say, continuous pressures from the pump 
through an accumulator to a system of piping leading to the 
several hydraulic machines, cranes, etc., and not to accumu- 



154 ? IMPING MACHINERY. 

lated pressures practically without motion, such as hydraulic 

The service required of water-ends for hydraulic-pressure 
pumps is so entirely different from that described in the pre- 
ceding chapter that ;: was thought best to separate the two, 
as thev have little or nothing in common either in design or 
method of construction. 

Plungers. — Hydraulic-pressure pumps are almost always 
fitted with double-acting plungers working through stuffing- 
boxes at each end of the pump-barrel ; parallel rods couple 
the outside plungers to a central cross-head, to which are 
also secured both the inside plungers and the steam piston- 
rod or other driving mechanism. The stuffing-boxes should 
always be deep, so that a liberal quantity of packing can be 
inserted at one time. Plungers for small pumps working 
•under high pressures should be made of machinery or cast 
steel, and finished by grinding, or by means of a lead lap, so 
as to insure their being perfectly round and straight. Care 
should be exercised in the selection of bar steel to see that it 
is entirely free from seams. 

Plungers 3 inches in diameter and larger may be made 
of cast iron, turned and polished ; in the event of blow-holes 
or other defects, they should be repaired by drilling into the 
plunger and the insertion of iron plugs well riveted or ex- 
panded by hammering, and afterwards finished to size. For 
cast-iron plungers it is customary to include the cross-head for 
the parallel rods in the same casting with the plunger. 

Materials. — Water-ends for pressures up to 500 pounds 
per square inch may be made of ordinary cast iron, but for 
pressures greater than that, and not exceeding iooo pounds 
pressure, air-furnace castings should be used ; the tensile 
strength of well-mixed air-furnace cast iron will average not 
much below 45,000 pounds per square inch of section. For 
p assures more than 1000 pounds per square inch, open-hearth 



HYDRAULIC PRESSURE PUMPS. 155 

steel castings are recommended ; not that such castings are 
stronger on an average than air-furnace iron, but the quality 
of the metal is entirely different, and partakes more of the 
nature of wrought iron. Whatever the material used, very 
great care must be exercised in design that lumps and unu- 
sually thick portions do not occur, for every such occurrence 
means a defective casting in the central line of the junction of 
two or more parts. The writer is not partial to the use of 
brass water-ends except for small sizes, say for plungers not 
exceeding 1 V 2 inches in diameter ; the metal should not be 
much, if any, less than for cast iron to work under the same 
pressure, experience having shown that ordinary brass cast- 
ings are liable to change shape under a continued high 
pressure. If the metal chosen be phosphor-bronze, it will add 
but little to the cost, and a much stiffer casting will be secured. 

Double-Acting Pressure -Pump. — The sectional eleva- 
tion shown in Fig. 129 represents the usual design for a small 
pressure-pump ; it shows an objectionable detail in a neces- 
sity for putting the largest valves on the delivery side of the 
pump, where they are not needed, instead of the suction 
side, where they are needed. This fact does not prevent the 
pump doing good work, and is not considered as absolutely 
bad. The valve-seats are usually fitted and driven tightly into 
straight holes, from which they may be removed whenever 
desired by means of a hook bolt-head underneath the bush- 
ing, with a strap and nut above. The diameter of the upper 
valve-seat must be large enough to permit the passage of the 
lower valve through it. The valves and seats are usually of 
hard gun-metal or phosphor-bronze. The caps over the 
valves are also of gun-metal or hard brass. For small pumps 
no objection exists to tapping the water-end for insertion of 
the caps as shown, but for larger pumps, say those having 
plungers of 3 inches diameter and larger, square or round 
caps, held in place by bolts and nuts, are to be preferred. 

A pressure-pump water-end having four separate valve- 
openings, as shown in Fig. 130, is one which admits of a 



i 5 6 



PUMPING MACHINERY. 



fZ7.\ 



O 




V-^2! 



HYDRAULIC-PRESSURE PUMPS. 



*57 




I— ( 

a 



o 



tSSS 8 *-— > 



14 



158 



PUMPING MACHINERY. 




readier examination in 
case the pump should 
work irregularly, as only 
the valve at fault is dis- 
turbed in its seating. 

A water-end with 
pot-valve chamber, 

as shown in Fig. 131, is 
recommended for all sizes 
having plungers larger 
than 3 inches in di- 
ameter. In this design 
the water-cylinder is a 
plain barrel, having a 
central diaphragm in- 
cluded in the main cast- 
ing, with one flanged 
neck on each side of this 
partition for connecting 
the pot- valve chambers ; 
the working-barrel also 
includes the stuffing- 
boxes at each end, and 
the connections for the 
tie-rods for securing to 
the steam-end. 

A sectional eleva- 
tion of a pot-valve 
chamber is shown in 
Fig. 132. It consists of 
two chambers, in one of 
which is placed the suc- 
tion-valves and in the 
other the delivery-valves. 
This combined chamber 



HYDRAULIC-PRESSURE PUMPS. 



*59 



bolts to the pump-barrel at A. The suction-pipe bolts at B. 
The delivery of the water under pressure is at C. A plan of 
this pot-valve chamber is shown immediately below the sec- 
tional elevation. The valve-seat for the suction-valves is 
shown in its place ; the ribs for supporting the delivery-valve 
plate is shown in the plan, the arrangement for the suction- 
valve plate being precisely like it on the opposite side. 

An end sectional elevation through the delivery-valve 
chamber and 

seat is shown FlG * r 3 2 - 

in Fig. 133, 

and an en- 
larged view of 

a section of 

one of the 

valves, to- 
gether with 

its cage and a 

portion of the 

seat, is shown 

in Fig. 134. 

The method 

of securing 

the several 

cages to the 

valve-seat by 

means of a 

plate is clear- 
ly shown in 

the several 




Fig. 132 A. 




Plan of Fig 132. 



preceding en- 
gravings and 

in Fig. 135. The above details are from a 9 X 36 duplex 
pressure-pump, designed by the author for handling a portion 
of a Bessemer steel plant, the pressure being 400 pounds per 
square inch, the operation being continuous throughout the 
year. This arrangement of seats and valves permits the 



i6o 



PUMPING MACHINERY. 



Fig. 133. 



removal of one set of valves and the substitution of another 
without stopping the pump but the few minutes necessary 

to make the change. In fitting 
pot-valve chambers, valves, and 
valve-seats, everything should be 
made to gauges, so that similar 
parts will interchange throughout 
the series ; there will then be re- 
quired but one extra set of valves 
and one extra seat to replace any 
one of the eight sets included in 
the pump. The valves and seats 
are made of hard gun-metal, the 
springs of phosphor-bronze. 

Valve-Plate and Valves for 2000 Pounds Pressure. 
— The valve-seat and valves shown in Fig. 136 are from a 

Fig. 134. 





smaller pump of the same general design, working under a 
pressure of 2000 pounds per square inch. The valves are 2 



HYDRAULIC-PRESSURE PUMPS. 



161 



Fig. 135. 



inches in diameter, mitred as shown in the drawing, and 
provided with four wings each; this same arrangement has 
been applied to a pump working 
occasionally, but not continuously, 
under 3000 pounds per square inch. 
Pot-valve chambers are some- 
times made to contain but one suc- 
tion- and delivery-valve each ; if the 
size of the pump is such that but 
one pot-valve chamber is required 
for each end of the working-barrel, 
no objection exists to applying it 
instead of the insertion of the valve- 
seats in the working - barrel, as 

shown in Fig. 130; but when two or more such pot-valve 
chambers are required, the writer recommends that the pot- 
valve chamber be made to include seats adapted to whatever 

Fig. 136. 





number of valves may be necessary, and thus keep down 
the number of separate parts requiring to be bolted to the 
working-barrel. 



14* 



162 



PUMPING MACHINERY. 



Pressure-piimp water-ends of large size ought to be 
cast in two pieces and bolted together with a blank flange 
between the two ends, as shown in Fig. 137. This particular 
water-end is the one referred to in the description of the pot- 
valve chamber details given above. In large water-ends there 
is always a chance that the metal diaphragm between the two 
working- ends of the barrel will be defective by reason of the 




difficulty in getting a proper vent for the cores at that point ; 
there will also be required chaplets for securing the core in 
place, and these of themselves interfere more or less in securing 
sound castings. It is a very serious matter to lose a casting 
of a large water-end, especially if the metal is 2 ^ to 3 inches 
in thickness, as the cost of breaking is sometimes quite as 
great as would purchase the same weight of pig-iron. 

Accumulator. — It is the common practice in hydraulic 
work to have somewhere in the system an accumulator for 
storing up a convenient volume of water under pressure. 
This accumulator serves a useful purpose in the fact that it 
renders the action of the pump less irregular than in a direct 
service, and in many operations such a service would not be 
permissible at all; therefore an accumulator may be con- 



HYDRAULIC-PRESSURE PUMPS. 163 

sidered as a necessary adjunct to a pressure-pump, and its in- 
fluence on the pump must be taken into account. The use of 
an accumulator is a direct benefit in this : it is more economical 
to employ a small pump working under a uniform pressure all 
the time than a larger pump only a portion of the time. The 
draft upon the water-supply in any hydraulic system is always 
sudden, and sometimes very great if several machines be 
thrown into operation at the same time. It is this sudden 
draft upon the water-supply that causes the accumulator to 
descend rapidly, and as the flow is now as suddenly stopped 
as it was originally started, the effect of its sudden arrest may 
be easily imagined. 

In regard to the pressure in an hydraulic riveter, shear, or 
other machine having a direct connection with an accumulator, 
it is not uniform throughout the stroke ; in some respects this 
is advantageous, — in riveting, for example, advantage has been 
taken of the impulse of the falling accumulator at the end of 
the stroke, so that a dead pressure of 40 tons was increased to 
nearly 60 tons at the time of closing the rivet ; the machine 
thus starting with the lower pressure arrived at the higher 
pressure at the point at which it was required. 

This fact has a very important bearing upon pump-design, 
and is one often overlooked. If it were a gradual increase of 
pressure from end to end it would not be so bad, but it comes 
more in the nature of a blow than that of gradual increase, 
because it is the sudden arrest of the falling accumulator at 
the bottom of its fall, the effect being precisely the same as 
any other falling weight moving at the same velocity. Water 
being practically incompressible, the shock is transmitted 
throughout the whole system, including the pump. 

It is just such experiences that lead one to distrust designs 
of pumping machinery based on ordinary factors of safety, 
especially if the water-end of the pump be made of cast iron, 
the accumulator one of small diameter and considerable 
height, coupled with the not unusual circumstance of being 
scarcely large enough for the work. There is no certainty 
whatever as to the solidity of cast iron at the centre of the 



1 64 PUMPING MACHINERY. 

juncture of two or more pieces, and especially if tiiesc pieces 
are of unequal thickness. The common defect ber. :i ::. 
away of the outer skin of iron from the centre and :': : :::...- r i 
cavity within. If this cavity have no outlet it if iheless, 

a weak spot in the pump because of the reduction in area; 
if, however, an opening extend from this cavity into the 
working-barrel, or into the delivery-chamber, then ev err .- : .* ' - 
of the pump and every arrest of the fell of the accumulator is 
an effort to split the pump open, which in time is almost sore 
to occur by cumulative effect, the granular structure of cast 
iron favoring such rupture. 

Air-CThambers for Hydraulic-Pressure Pumps. — It is 
not a common practice to supply pressure-pumps, or s; 
of hydraulic piping, with air-chambers instead of accumulators, 
but in special cases air-chambers have been use: 
under a pressure of 850 pounds per square inch, and = _ : :: ; - 
ing a large plant of hydraulic machinery in a situation where 
it was not convenient to introduce an accumulator on account 
of its weight or size. An air-compressor will be required :': r 
keeping the air-vessel properly charged. This is in the nature 
of a complication, it is true, but it is essential to the proper 
working of such a plant. 

Hydraulic Transmission of Power. — Water under 
pressure may be transmitted from a central source of su: 
to outlying points in a large manufacturing establishment at 
very reasonable cost, so that for driving punching and shear- 
ing machines, or other hydraulic machine tool; . ;_:-:. . :- 
ing or in a yard, the power can be furnished at a cost much 
less than if a direct line of shafting were used. 

As to the power saved by hydraulic transmission, Mr. Tweddell 
obtained, experimentally, the following results. The indicate : 
horse-power of the engine at 50 revolutions per minute was 

6.65 I. H. P. Vhen driving the transmitting shafting alone, 
3.51 I. H. P. when running light without the shafting, 
leaving 3.14 I. H. P. as the lowest power required for the transmitting shafting of 
about 300 feet in length. 



HYDRAULIC PRESSURE PUMPS. 1 65 

This shows that when running without doing work forty- 
seven per cent, of the engine-power was spent in transmission 
by the shafting, and a further loss has to be added for the 
friction of the gearing employed in getting up or reducing 
the speed of the several tools. 

In the hydraulic transmission of power, on the contrary, 
the loss of useful effect between the pumps and the accumu- 
lator is veiy little at the usual speed of working; for with one 
pump working, 1694 cubic inches was the theoretical delivery 
of the pump for 20 strokes, and 1614 cubic inches was the 
actual quantity pumped into the accumulator, showing a loss 
of only 4^ per cent., and with both pumps working, the cor- 
responding quantities for 20 strokes were 3388 and 3278 cubic 
inches, showing a loss of only 3^ per cent. These experi- 
ments were carefully made, the accumulator registering the 
exact distance it travelled for a certain number of strokes of 
the pump. 

The loss from friction in the accumulator was found to be as 
follows : 

1250 pounds per square inch, ascending pressure in the accumulator; 
1225 " " " descending " " " 

therefore, as in ascending the friction had to be overcome by 
the pump in addition to lifting the load, and in descending the 
friction has to be overcome by the load itself, the amount of 
friction will be half the difference of pressure in the two cases, 
or 12^ pounds per square inch, being only one per cent, of 
the power. This result applies equally to the friction in each 
of the hydraulic machines ; and as the power is generally 
applied to the cutting tools direct from the ram, two per cent, 
represents all the loss from friction, and there remains only 
to add the loss due to the friction of the water in the pipes, 
which cannot amount to much if proper care is taken in pro- 
portioning their area and in avoiding bends. 

Power for Hydraulic Engines. — The increasing variety 
of uses to which hydraulic power is now being satisfactorily 
employed shows that it is not only rapidly growing into 



1 66 PUMPING MACHINERY. 

present favor, but promises well for the future. Recent papers 
and discussions on the application of electric power to drive 
drilling machinery at the best only leave the reader somewhat 
sceptical as to the economy, to say nothing of the practical 
feasibility of thus finishing in situ the great amount of drilling 
which cannot be done during the earlier stages of the con- 
struction of ships, bridges, boilers, etc. 

No doubt, however, exists as to the practical success and 
the economy in working results when this drilling is done by 
hydraulic power. For some years past a great amount of 
work of this kind has been done in the French naval dock- 
yards by very neat hydraulic drilling-engines. The type of 
engine used is the Brotherhood three-cylinder, with which we 
are all tolerably familiar ; the design, at any rate, if not with 
the machine itself. In one arrangement the three-cylinder 
engine shaft carried a bevel-pinion, gearing direct into a larger 
bevel-wheel driving the drill-spindle, together with the usual 
feed apparatus. This can be attached temporarily to a bracket 
for drilling work — for example, on a vise bench — away from 
the shops. The w r hole affair is so light, weighing but 60 or 
70 pounds, that it can be used in connection with an ordinary 
hand-ratchet drill-head. Hydraulic pressure at 1 500 pounds 
per square inch (but also sometimes at 750 pounds or 1000 
pounds per square inch) is conveyed to the drilling-engine by 
means of special flexible copper tubing. There is no more 
difficulty in attaching this gear to the plating on a ship's side 
than is experienced in the case of hand-drilling, while the 
speed of working, when once fixed, is nearly 10 to 1 in favor 
of hydraulic work. In another application the drill-head is 
still lighter, the power being transmitted from the engine to 
the drill by means of a Stow flexible shaft. The necessary 
speed for the flexible shaft is obtained by gearing up at the 
engine-end and reducing it at the drill-end. 

The working parts of the Brotherhood three-cylinder hy- 
draulic engine consist only of the three pistons and connecting 
rods, one crank, and one rotating balanced valve and spindle 
which fits into the driver and is turned direct from the crank- 



HYDRAULIC-PRESSURE PUMPS. 167 

pin. There are no glands, stuffing-boxes, or oscillating joints, 
and the wear of all the parts is taken up automatically. The 
engine occupies very little space, and will work up to 200 
revolutions per minute. 

The duplex steam-end is the one in general use for 
operating hydraulic-pressure pumps. Geared power-pumps 
are seldom used in iron- or steel-works, but are largely used in 
other lines of manufacture. Pressure-pumps driven by a steam- 
engine in which the pump-plunger is attached directly to the 
engine-piston are occasionally met with ; it is a good form, 
but its use is not general. 

The especial fitness of the duplex method of operating the 
plungers in hydraulic-pressure pumps was probably never 
better stated than by the late Alexander L. Holly, in his 
affidavit at the time of the expiration of the Worthington 
patents, an abstract of which is here given : 

" In all Bessemer works pumping engines for throwing 
large volumes of water, under 300 to 400 pounds per square 
inch, are required to actuate cranes, hoists, converters, and 
other hydraulic machinery. The hydraulic machinery is the 
most expensive and the hardest-worked part of the plant, and 
the constancy and steadiness of the pumping power is the 
most vital feature of the whole system of machinery. Any 
delay or serious fluctuation in its operation in handling fluid 
masses of iron and steel is fatal to the commercial success of 
the Bessemer process. 

" The pumping engine runs from twenty to twenty-four hours 
per day, rarely excepting Sundays. The strain on the engine 
is constant, but the velocity is momentarily and suddenly 
varied by the demand for water from a. low to the highest 
speed. Yet the pressure on the cranes, etc., is, and for the 
safe working must be, nearly constant. The heavy pressure 
by itself puts the machinery under a severe stress ; but when 
this pressure is also associated with great volume, requiring 
very large parts, the conditions of service are more severe than 
any other with which I am acquainted. 



1 68 PUMPING MACHINERY. 

" The reason why this pumping engine stands this severe 
service without extraordinary repairs, and the reason why it 
imposes no extraordinary stress on the machinery it actuates, 
is, that the system on which it is constructed — the movement 
of the steam-valve of one engine by the piston of the other 
engine — permits the water-pistons to stop momentarily at the 
ends of their stroke, thus allowing the water-valves time to 
seat without slamming ; all this being associated with a uni- 
form velocity of piston, and hence a uniform pressure on the 
water pumped instead of a varying pressure, such as is caused 
by an irregularly-moving piston attached to a fly-wheel. The 
water flows through the pump and to the cranes in a constant 
and noiseless stream. In all other pumps with which I am 
acquainted, when applied to such service, there is a violent 
concussion of the water, slamming of the valves, and jarring 
and straining of all the parts, and consequently frequent 
break-downs of the pump and of hydraulic pipes and 
machinery." 

Compound Pressure -Pumps. — If the conditions of ser- 
vice are favorable (and this is not always the case), compound 
steam-cylinders, either with or without condensing apparatus, 
may be applied to any direct-acting pressure-pump, and there- 
by effect a considerable saving by getting a certain amount of 
work out of the exhaust steam, which would otherwise escape 
into the atmosphere. 

Compounding is not recommended for pressure-pumps 
where the service is irregular ; that is, where the pump works 
with great violence for a few minutes and then comes to a 
state of rest, an effect following some kinds of direct service, 
and always likely to occur if the accumulator is too small for 
the work, for the usual method of controlling the steam throt- 
tle-valve is by the rise and fall of the accumulator ram. If 
the action of the pump can be made continuous over long 
intervals of time, say several hours, then compounding is 
recommended, provided the initial steam-pressure in the high- 
pressure cylinder is not less than 75 pounds. 



HYDRAULIC-PRESSURE PUMPS. 169 

Pressure-pumps driven by power are often arranged 
with two or more plungers driven from a crank-shaft ; a large 
plunger for filling the machine or ram quickly, at a pressure 
say one-fourth of that ultimately required, a pressure which 
will do enough work in many operations to use probably four- 
fifths of the whole volume of water, there remains then but 
one-fifth more water to be pumped at the higher pressure, if 
each pump acted singly, one after the other, which is some- 
times, but not always, the case. 

It is the usual practice in constructing such pumps to have 
both large and small plungers in continuous movement. 

Such pumps are usually provided with an automatic device, 
so that when the limit of pressure for the large plunger is 
reached its suction-valve is lifted from t;he seat, and continues 
off the seat so long as this pressure is maintained ; the large 
plunger during this time is simply playing back, and forth in 
its cylinder, without doing any work ; meanwhile, the smaller 
pump is forcing the water at the higher pressure to complete 
the hydraulic operation. 

As a practical example, let us suppose a crank-pump fitted 
with two single-acting plungers of different diameters, both 
working at the same time, the larger one 3 inches diameter, 
the smaller one 1 y 2 inches diameter, both of 6 inches stroke. 
Each revolution of the crank-shaft will cause the delivery of 
42.4 cubic inches of water for the large plunger, and 10.6 cubic 
inches of water for the small plunger. If the crank-shaft 
make 60 revolutions per minute, 3180 cubic inches of water 
will have been delivered by both plungers, we will say at 500 
pounds per square inch, at which pressure the large plunger- 
pump ceases to act by the automatic lifting of the suction- 
valve. The operation of the smaller plunger-pump goes on, 
and takes up the task of increasing the water- pressure from 
500 pounds to the higher one necessary to do the work ; this 
smaller plunger being only one-fourth the area of the larger 
one, will have power sufficient to force the water-pressure up 
to 2000 per square inch from the same crank-shaft, and at a 
somewhat less expenditure of power per revolution, because 

H 15 



I/O 



PUMPING MA CHINE R Y. 



the large plunger is thrown out of service ; the quantity of 
water delivered would be only one-fifth as much ; that is, 636 
cubic inches per minute as against 3180 when both plungers 
were at work. This example assumes that two minutes are 
given the hydraulic operation requiring the active use of the 
pumps, but generally the second operation requires less time 
than the first, except when pressing bales, etc. 

The power pressure-pump illustrated in Fig. 138 was 
designed by Watson & Stillman, New York, and represents 
one type of the medium size of hydraulic pumps built by 

Fig. 138. 




them. This particular pump is fitted with four plungers 
driven from the cranks and cross-heads ; two of these pumps 
are high pressure, having plungers ^ inch diameter, working 



HYDRAULIC PRESSURE PUMPS. 



i;i 



under a pressure of 6ooo pounds, the other two plungers 
being I y 2 inches in diameter, and working under the lower 
pressure of 1500 pounds per square inch ; the four pump de- 
liveries are all connected to one common discharge-pipe. 

The two low-pressure pumps are provided with an automatic 
trip, so that when any desired pressure less than the above 
is reached they will automatically stop their delivery, in addi- 
tion to which safety-valves are also provided for each of the 
above pressures; the pressure-valve of the low-pressure pumps 
acting as a check-valve to prevent the water of the high- 
pressure pumps from being driven back into the low-pressure 
pumps. 

Although differing in design, the details of the automatic 
trip shown in the sectional elevation, Fig. 139, will illustrate 



Fig. 139. 




the principle of the method employed to stop the action of 
the pump. For the sake of clearness the position of the 



172 PUMPING MACHINERY. 

valves were changed from that in the pump ; it was also neces- 
sary to leave off the piston connecting with the high-pressure 
system, as shown upon the front trips in Fig. 138, but which 
can be clearly understood at a glance ; the action being that 
when the required pressure has been reached the weighted 
lever will be lifted directly by the piston, or, in the case of an 
accumulator, by an accumulator trip, as in the beginning or 
middle of a stroke ; the valve would then be seated with a 
heavy pressure upon it, and it would be impossible to raise it, 
so that a slotted cross-head must be placed upon the connec- 
tion ; furthermore, the spring which had been kept in a state 
of tension by the weight and lever is now kept in a state of 
tension by the pressure upon the valve only when this valve 
is raised from its seat by the action of the succeeding stroke. 
The spring prevents its reseating again by means of the lever 
and rod extending up through the suction-pipe, which also 
allows the water to be driven backwards and forwards through 
the suction-pipe without any loss of power. 



STEAM AND POWER CRANK- PIMPS. 173 



CHAPTER IX. 

STEAM AND POWER CRANK-PUMPS. 

Pumps of this type are very much in favor in Europe, and 
more largely made and used there than here; a circum- 
stance probably due to the invention and development of the 
steam-thrown valve in this country, and now so universally 
employed in single steam-pumps, its use here having preceded 
by many years its general manufacture and sale abroad. 
Pumps with steam-thrown valves are compact, efficient, and 
offered at a lower price than is possible with fly-wheel pumps ; 
the result is they meet with a ready sale, so that for twenty- 
five years past fly-wheel pumps have been offered at a great 
disadvantage because of its cheaper rival. 

The question is sometimes now asked, though less fre- 
quently than formerly, as to the comparative merits of crank 
and fly-wheel as against direct-acting duplex pumps for small 
and medium sizes, say those having a capacity less than one 
million gallons in twenty-four hours. This is not an easy 
question to answer, because there are so many things enter- 
ing into the problem which lie wholly outside of the relative 
merits or demerits of the two designs when brought in direct 
comparison. 

Without entering into detail, the general conclusion reached 
by engineers and users of steam-pumps is that, in general, the 
small and medium sizes of direct-acting single and duplex 
pumps compare favorably as an investment, admitting the fact 
that they are less economical in the use of steam. 

The circular motion of a crank-pin must of necessity 
be continuous and nearly uniform if the crank-shaft be fur- 

15* 



i"4 



PUMPING MACHINERY. 



nished with a fly-wheel of proper proportions. An analysis 
of the relative motions of a crank-pin and its corresponding 
piston, assuming the connecting-rod to be three times the 
length of stroke, is shown in Fig. 140. The piston movement 






Fig. 140. 




is not so objectionable on the first and last quarters of the 
crank movement, but the rapid acceleration of the piston just 
before the quarter stroke is reached, continuing to the half 
stroke, and then of its retardation until the three-quarters 
stroke is passed, brings some very complicated strains upon 
all the reciprocating parts of the pump and their connections. 

The best position for the cranks on a double pump- 
ing engine is at right angles to each other ; this equalizes 
somewhat the operation of the pumping engine as a whole, 
but does not remedy the faulty operation of each water-end 
singly. 

Crank-pumps for this reason require to be stronger than 
direct-acting pumps of the same size ; the energy stored up 
in the rim of the revolving fly-wheel, together with its nearly 
uniform rate of revolution, as well as its inability to suddenly 
change either of the above conditions in a single stroke of 
the pump, taken in connection with so inelastic a substance 
as water, make the conditions difficult to provide for. The 
difficulties which attend the practical solution of such a prob- 
lem lead one easily to the conclusion that a crank and fly- 
wheel are not only imperfect but undesirable in a train of 
pump mechanism, and it is largely for this reason, as well 
as for cheaper construction, that direct-acting steam-pumps 



STEAM AND POWER CRANK-PUMPS. 1 75 

have largely displaced the crank and fly-wheel pump for the 
commercial or small sizes. 

The advantages claimed for the crank over the direct- 
acting movement is that the length of stroke is fixed, and no 
short strokes can occur, thereby securing a measured dis- 
placement for each stroke ; thus crank-pumps require less 
clearance at each end of the steam-cylinders, and it follows 
also that less steam is used per stroke and with greater 
economy. This is true in part, and becomes so only when 
the engineer in charge of a direct-acting engine fails to adjust 
the dash-relief, or cushioning valves, so as to make a full 
stroke, and yet prevent the pistons striking the heads, a thing 
not at all difficult to do. 

Mr. H. P. M. Birkenbine says, with reference to and in favor 
of crank and fly-wheel pumps, " A higher piston-speed can 
be had with a crank and fly-wheel pump than if the pump 
were direct-acting, for the reason that in the latter type the 
termination of each stroke is defined and secured by steam 
acting as a cushion to counteract the force of the moving 
parts and of the water and bring them to rest. In large 
steam-pumps ioo feet per minute may be considered as a 
limit to safe piston-speed. With pumping engines having 
cranks, connecting-rods, and fly-wheels to terminate and de- 
fine the stroke of the piston any piston-speed possible to the 
pump can be secured with safety. The power stored in the 
moving mass of the fly-wheel at the termination of the stroke 
is carried to the beginning of the next stroke, without any 
loss but that due to the friction of the moving parts and the 
resistance of the air to the motion of the fly-wheel. Then 
the practically uniform speed of the rim of the fly-wheel se- 
cures the desired motion for the piston through the connect- 
ing-rod and crank of the pump by gradually retarding the 
motion until the point of rest is reached, and accelerating it 
after the piston has passed that point." 

Valve Areas. — Crank and fly-wheel pumps, by reason of 
the irregular plunger movement, should have slightly larger 



176 



PUMPING MACHINERY. 



valve areas than direct-acting pumps of the same size ; they 
should have large air-chambers, and, preferably, each water- 
end should have its own air-chamber. As has been already 
stated, the best arrangement is to place two double-acting 
pumps side by side, to operate as a pair, with a crank move- 
ment at right angles to each other. When properly designed, 
double-acting crank-pumps thus arranged have given excel- 
lent satisfaction, and have shown exceptionally high economy 
in the use of steam by reason of the high initial steam-press- 
ure, and the expansion following an early cut-off, a result 
which has been quite impossible to obtain in direct-acting 
pumping engines until within the past few years, during which 
time ingenious and efficient high-duty attachments have been 
developed. 



The want of approximation to continuous effort in 
a crank and fly-wheel pump was shown by Mr. John G. Mair, 

Fig. 141. 




/ Path. \f. 



10' 

I 



<Jo* /so" z7o { 
One Revolution 



M. Inst. C. E., London, in a paper contributed to that institu- 
tion in 1886, in which he remarks upon the delivery from a 
compound rotative engine, with cranks at right angles, work- 



STEAM A XD POWER CRANK-PUMPS. 1 77 

ing two double-acting pumps, supposing the connecting-rod 
to be indefinitely long, to be similar to that shown in Fig. 
141. The deliveries are added together and shown in full 
lines ; the variation of flow in this case is sufficient to make 
the pressures fluctuate to such an extent that accidents are 
very liable to occur when working without air. Mr. Mair 
states that in his own practice he has met with many cases 
where accidents have happened to the pump-work and rising 
mains when through carelessness no air was in the vessel. 
Such a result might have been expected. The importance of 
a large and properly charged air-chamber attached to the de- 
livery side of a crank-pump is now so generally understood 
that bad effects are sure to follow any neglect in so important 
a detail. 

Using Steam Expansively. — In a mill engine using a 
high pressure of steam, cutting off early in the stroke and 
expanding below the average pressure necessary to do the 
work, the fly-wheel serves a useful purpose in absorbing the 
surplus energy at the beginning of the stroke, where it is not 
needed, and giving it out during the latter half of the stroke, 
where it is needed. In this manner a properly-proportioned 
wheel, working in conjunction with a good governor con- 
trolling the point of cut-off, will give a very even rate of 
rotation to the crank-shaft, varying, of course, within the limits 
necessary to secure a proper action on the part of the governor. 

In the case of a crank and fly-wheel pumping engine as 
usually designed, the case is so entirely different as to almost 
prevent the use or application of ordinary fly-wheel formula 
such as would apply in the preceding paragraph, and for the 
reason that the plunger-rod of the water-end passes into the 
steam-end, connecting directly with either the high- or low- 
pressure piston, or if a tandem engine, with both. A pump- 
ing engine of this type is but a modified form of a direct- 
acting engine, because the effort of the steam-end is transmitted 
directly through its piston-rod, which, by continuation through 
a cross-head or otherwise, extends into and becomes the 

m 



178 PUMPING MACHINERY. 

plunger-rod of the water-end, controlling the movement of 
the plunger, making it coincident with that of the steam-pis- 
ton. In this case the power of the engine does not pass 
through the crank-shaft and fly-wheel, as was the case in the 
mill engine ; the connection between the steam-end and the 
water-end being direct, the fly-wheel absorbs and gives off 
only so much of the energy of the steam-end as comes 
through the irregular movement of the pump-plunger due to 
that of the crank, together with another irregular impulse 
upon the plunger due to the method of steam distribution. 

If a pair of double-acting pumping engines were placed 
side by side cutting off steam at say five-eighths of the stroke, 
such as would be the case with the ordinary slide-valve, the 
machine would work without any fly-wheel at all ; and such 
pumping engines are now in use in mines and for other pur- 
poses. Pumping engines of this type are more economical 
in the use of steam than direct-acting pumps, but less so than 
the same type of pump furnished with a fly-wheel and a 
better steam distribution, together with perhaps twice or three 
times the initial steam-pressure. 

To better illustrate the best method of using steam for any 
purpose three diagrams are given in Fig. 142, of which two 
are intended to show how a saving in steam is had over a 
direct- acting engine following full stroke, by increasing the 
steam-pressure and cutting off at half stroke and at quarter 
stroke, using the same cylinder throughout ; the engine to be 
non-condensing, and exhausting against a back pressure of 
18 pounds absolute, or about three pounds above the atmos- 
phere. The initial pressures shown in the diagrams are 65, 
80, and 120 pounds respectively. 

In estimating the value of the diagrams, let us assume that 
the cylinder is of four cubic feet capacity, and the diagrams 
showing 65 pounds pressure to represent an ordinary direct- 
acting steam-cylinder ; the initial and terminal pressures are, 
of course, the same, or a mean pressure of 65 — 18 = 47 
pounds. Four cubic feet of steam are used, and as one cubic 
foot of steam at 65 pounds pressure weighs .1569 pound, four 



STEAM AND POWER CRANK- PUMPS. 



179 



cubic feet would be .6276 pound of steam required to move 
the load one stroke. 

If this same work could be done employing a higher press- 
ure, say 80 pounds, and cutting off at half stroke, a saving 

Fig. 142. 




_ \-A±mo3.^ Jii-jxe 



would be had as follows, using the formula given on page 181, 
and the table of hyperbolic logarithms on page 180. 

- -6931 



80 x 



— 18 = 49.7 pounds mean pressure. 



Instead of using four cubic feet of steam, only two are re- 
quired. Steam at 80 pounds pressure weighs .1901 pound 
per cubic foot; then 2 X .T901 = .3802 pound of steam for 
each stroke, or .2474 pound less than in the preceding ex- 
ample, a saving of about 39 per cent. 

The third diagram is that corresponding to 120 pounds ab- 
solute pressure and cutting off at quarter stroke, which repre- 
sents a further saving, thus : 
1 + 1.3863 



120 x 



— 18 = 53 6 pounds mean pressure. 



i8o 



PUMPING MACHINERY. 



Only one cubic foot of steam is required, and this weighs 
.2742 pound, so that a saving of .3534 pound is had at 120 
pounds pressure following quarter stroke, over 65 pounds fol- 
lowing full stroke, a saving of 56 per cent, in weight of steam. 

It will be understood that these are theoretical deductions, 
and that losses of several kinds which occur in practice will 
reduce these percentages somewhat, but they are approxi- 
mately true, and will serve our present purpose, which is to 
show the wasteful action of direct-acting non-expansion engines 
as ordinarily applied to steam pumps. 

Hyperbolic logarithms are seldom required in direct- 
acting pump calculations because the steam is not used ex- 
pansively, but for convenience in such cases as involve the 
expansion of steam, as in the case of crank and fly-wheel, and 
other high-duty engines, they are exceedingly useful. 



TABLE XI. 

HYPERBOLIC LOGARITHMS. 



No. 


Log. 


No. 


Log. 


No. 


Log. 


No. 


Log. 


I.I 


•0953 


3-4 


I.2238 


5-7 


I-7405 


8.0 


2.0794 


1.2 


.1823 


3-5 


I 


•2528 


5-8 


1 7579 


8.1 


2.0919 


1-3 


.2624 


3-6 


I 


.2809 


5-9 


i-775o 


8.2 


2.104I 


1.4 


•3365 


3-7 


I 


•3083 


6.0 


1.7918 


8-3 


2.1163 


i-5 


•4055 


3-8 


I 


•3350 


6.1 


1.8083 


8.4 


2.1282 


1.6 


.4700 


3-9 


I 


.3610 


6.2 


1 8245 


85 


2. 1 401 


1-7 


•5306 


4.0 


I 


•3863 


6-3 


1.8405 


8.6 


2.1518 


1.8 


.5878 


4.1 


I 


.4110 


6.4 


1.8563 


8-7 


2 1633 


1.9 


.6418 


4.2 


I 


•4351 


6.5 


1.8718 


8.8 


2.1748 


2.0 


.6931 


4-3 


I 


4586 


6.6 


1.8871 


8.9 


2.1861 


2.1 


7419 


4.4 


I 


.4816 


6.7 


1. 902 1 


9.0 


2.1972 


2.2 


.7884 


4-5 


I 


.5041 


6.8 


1. 9169 


9.1 


2.2083 


2-3 


8329 


4.6 


I 


.5261 


6.9 


I-93I5 


9.2 


2.2192 


2.4 


8755 


4-7 


I 


5476 


7.0 


1-9459 


9-3 


2.2300 


2.5 


9163 


4.8 


I 


5686 


7i 


1. 9601 


9-4 


2.2407 


2.6 


9555 


4-9 


I 


5892 


7.2 


1.9741 


9-5 


2.2513 


2.1 


9933 


5-0 


I 


6094 


7-3 


1.9879 


96 


2.2618 


2.8 I 


0296 


5-1 


I 


6292 


7-4 


2.0015 


9-7 


2.2721 


2.9 I. 


0647 


5-2 


I 


6487 


7-5 


2.0149 


9.8 


2.2824 


3.0 I 


0986 


53 


I 


6677 


7.6 


2.0281 


9.9 


2.2925 


3-1 I 


1314 


5-4 


I 


6864 


7-7 


2.0412 


10 


2.3026 


3.2 I 


1632 


5-5 


I. 


7047 


7.8 


2.0541 






3-3 i- 


1939 


5.6 


I.7228 


7-9 


2.0668 







STEAM AND POWER CRANK- PUMPS. l8l 

Table XL contains all numbers from i.i to io.o, varying by 
.1, which will probably meet any ordinary requirement, but 
should a more extended table be required, the reader is re- 
ferred to Cotterill's " The Steam-Engine considered as a Heat- 
Engine," which contains a very elaborate table, from which 
the one inserted was compiled. The use of such a table in 
expansion of steam calculations is to facilitate and shorten the 
work. The hyperbolic expansion curve of steam is used on 
the assumption that the volumes are inversely as the pressures. 
This is not exactly the case, but there are so many circum- 
stances which affect all steam-engine calculations that it is near 
enough true, and by reason of this close approximation and 
extreme simplicity, its use in connection with steam expansion 
calculations may be said to be universal. 

The mean pressure of steam may be obtained by using the 
following formula : 

Let p = mean pressure of steam per square inch. 

P = initial pre-sure, or pressure on admission to cylinder. 
R = range of expansion, or ratio of volume at end of stroke to volume at 
point of cut-off. 

Then p — /* X- — - -- — back pressure. 

In other words, the work done before expansion is always 
reckoned as I, to which must be added the hyperbolic loga- 
rithm of the range of expansion ; this sum must be divided 
by the number of times the steam expanded, the quotient so 
obtained must be multiplied by the initial steam-pressure, and 
from the product subtract the back pressure ; this will give 
the mean pressure throughout the stroke. 

Example. — What will be the mean pressure if steam of loo pounds follow 
quarter stroke or four expansions, assuming a back pressure of 1 8 pounds ? 
Work done before expansion = I. 
Hyperbolic logarithm of 4 = 1. 386 = 2.386. 

Then _j3 = .5965. 

4 

.5965 X 100 = 59.65 
Back pressure = 18.00 

Answer = 41.65 pounds. 
i5 



182 



PUMPING MACHINERY. 



The details of crank-pumps need not differ essentially 
from those of other types. It is only necessary in designing 

Fig. 143. 



\>\\^XV -_fv| [~3_ ^\\\>\\ ^^^^^'^ 1 



t: K ''^«Wiiiiiiiiilliiiiiil(lBr ; lniiiii)miiiiiiii)niii "" ' 




a crank-pump to select the best size and kind of water-end, 
and combine it with a suitable steam-engine. The completed 
machine may be either horizontal or vertical, depending on 



STEAM AND POWER CRANK-PUMPS. 



183 



the nature of the service. The examples selected for illustra- 
tion show how wide a range of general design may be in- 
dulged in ; some of the illustrations are much out of the 

Fig. 144. 




Steam per stroke, eight square units. 

White lines, square of units. 

White stripes, end of piston stroke. 

A, cut-off or momentum ; B, steam service. 

general trend of pump design, whilst others were designed to 
meet certain conditions of service for which the ordinary 
designs were not thought to be suitable. 

The Woodward steam-pump with double-acting piston 
water-ends is shown in Fig. 143. It consists of two complete 
pumps placed side by side with cranks at right angles to each 
other, connecting by 
means of suitable FlG 

rods to the piston- 
rod of each engine. 
The cylinders are of 
the ordinary three- 
ported variety, the 
distribution of steam 
being effected by the 
ordinary D slide- 
valve driven by an 
eccentric for each en- 
gine. Two fly-wheels 
are used by which a 
regular rate of rota- 
tion is secured. The manufacturers of this pump publish 
a diagram, which is here reproduced in Fig. 144, showing 




1 84 



PUMPING MACHINERY. 




the steam consumption and distribution for the double pump 
illustrated above. 

The cut-off is fixed at ^ of the stroke from the beginning, 

and by a proper adjust- 
FlG - J 46. ment of the slide-valves 

no live steam is needed 
for cushioning. 

A perspective view of 
this pump is given in 
Fig. 145, in which it will 
be seen that the steam- 
cylinders, water - cylin- 
ders, and crank - shaft 
are all on the same 
horizontal plane. 

For changing the 
point of cut-off, or the 
speed of the pump, an 
adjustable eccentric is employed, as shown in Fig. 146. 

Slotted Cross-Head. — A crank and fly-wheel pump fitted 
with a slotted cross-head for operating the fly-wheel is shown 
in Fig. 147. The crank-shaft has two bearings, one on either 
side of the piston-rod ; the slotted cross-head is fitted with a 
sliding block, and any adjustment for wear may be had by 
reducing the distance-pieces through which the bolts pass. 
This is the most compact arrangement yet devised for pumps, 
the whole length required being but little more than that 
necessary for the path of the crank-pin and the boss of the 
crank to which it is attached. 

If two such pumps be placed side by side with the cranks 
at 90 to each other they will work without a fly-wheel. 

An excellent design for a crank and fly-wheel pump by 
Guild & Garrison is shown in Fig. 148. The steam- and 
water-cylinders are mounted on a bed-plate with the bear- 
ings for the crank-shaft back of the water-cylinder. The 
steam- and water-pistons are connected by a rod to which is 



STEAM AND POWER CRANK-PUMPS. 



r85 



also secured the cross-head for operating the crank. The dis- 
tribution of steam is effected by an eccentric operating a plain 
slide-valve. The fly-wheel in a single pump requires to be 
heavier than when two pumps work together at right angles 
if any benefit is to be derived from the expansion of steam. 

' Fig. 147. 




A double-acting vertical pump of English design (Good- 
brand & Co., Manchester) is shown in Fig. 149. The method 
of operating the crank is a good one, because there are no 
strains outside of the central line of the steam- and water- 
pistons. The length of the connecting-rod, together with the 
distance required for the yoke connecting the steam and water 
piston-rods, gives the pump considerable height ; the fly-wheel 
shaft is also rather high because of the yoke connection. 
This increased distance is less objectionable in a vertical than 
in a horizontal pump. No power is transmitted through the 
crank-pins to and from the fly-wheel other than that necessary 
to equalize the speed after the point of cut-off, so that the 

work required of the fly-wheel is very light. 

16* 



: : i 



PUMPING MACHINERY. 





STEAM AND POWER CRANK-PUMPS. 



187 



This pump has been designed to do light as well as heavy 
duty, and is arranged with a movable eccentric to vary the 

Fig. 149. 




cut-off in the steam-cylinders, ranging from one-eighth of the 
stroke for light duty, to following the piston to about eight- 



: ; S 



PUMPIA'G MACfflXERY. 



tenths of the stroke. The eccentric as described bv the 
makers, unaccompanied by drawings, is constructed as follows : 
A disk, having ears as guides for the eccentric, is keyed to the 

Fig. 150. 




crank-shaft, and the eccentric itself is simply a ring to receive 
the clips for coupling up to the valve rod ; it is made with two 
lugs to work freely in the eccentric-groove, turned on a hand- 
wheel, which is free to turn round on the crank-shaft, and 
when turned in a direction indicated bv the arrow on the 




STEAM AND POWER CRANK-PUMPS. 



1 89 



disk, will alter the throw of the eccentric, suiting the duty of 
the pump with an economical use of steam. 

Slurry -Pump. — A pumping machine for the somewhat 
unusual service of handling. brick earth is shown in Fig. 150, 
which is reproduced from Engineering. There are three 
pump-barrels, each 10^ inches in diameter by 15 inches 
stroke. The earth is moved through a 6-inch pipe nearly a 
mile and three-quarters long, and is mixed with double its 
volume of water. A series of trials have been made to find 
the power required for the transportation of the earth, and the 
results are given in Table XII. 

TABLE XII. 

Showing the Power required for pumping Brick Earth. Pump by 
Taylor & Neate, Rochester. Experiments at Brick- Yards of 
Smeed, Dean & Co., Sittingbourne, England. 



hr W 



en 



Observed Data. 



fa 



122 Off. Off. 
114 

133 
124 

130 20.8 82 + 5 

129 20.6170 + 5 

104 16.6 

88 14. 1 



fa 



7° + 5 

75 + 5 



O 
o . 
M </> 

o a 

_W)fa 



!43 
143 
143 
136 
141 
151 



a 

Q 



3'.o" 
3'.o" 
4'-4" 
4'. 4" 
3 '.6" 



3'-o" 



U 



5-5 
38 
33 
56 
52 
49 
44 



Probable Distribution 
of Power. 



fa 2J 



ccn q, 

• rj <U B 
U 3 3 

;n'Sofa 
fa 



55 

7 

7 

7 

7 

6 

5 



>> 


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U) 


O 


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tA 




J3 


3 Q. 

ir 


cd 


•43 £ 

3 


£2 


'Efa 


og 


fa 


fa 


Off. 


Off. 


" 


31 


" 


26 


8 


23 


8 


22 


6 


25 


5 


23 






OfL, 



<_ 3 u 
fcfa.° 

o.£> 

fa 



Off. 



15 



Probable Distribu- 
tion of Power re- 
duced to a Mean 
Speed of 130 Revolu- 
tions per Minute by 
Direct Proportion. 







J3 


>> 





a. 
£ 




in 

3 
CO 




fa 


>* 


>^ 


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M 


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fa 


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6.24 


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3° 


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28 




7 


8 


23 


18 


7 


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o 
m 

M 

fa 

w 



6.24 
37 
35 
56 

52 
61 

65 



Note. — As the horse-power at 130 revolutions is calculated in direct proportion 
only, it is probably considerably under the mark where the speeds were low. If 
the power increased as the square of the speed, 90 I. II. P. would have been 
required instead of 65, and this power ought to be available for emergencies. 



190 PUMPING MACHINERY. 

At these trials the entire plant consisted of two wash-mills, 
well-pumps, and slurry-pumps, and the slurry-pumps driven 
by a 20 H. P. portable engine with reduced boiler-pressure. 
This engine was not powerful enough for the work, and was 
usually assisted by a 12 H. P. portable engine driving on to 
its fly-wheel ; during the experiments, however, the 20 H. P. 
engine was forced and the auxiliary disconnected. 

The quantity of earth delivered through the 6-inch pipe 
line, 2782 yards long, was equal to 1600 cubic yards per week 
of 60 hours, mixed with about double this volume of water. 
The power averaged through a number of diagrams was about 
60 indicated horse-power, of which the slurry-pumps took 
approximately half and the wash-mills the other half, the well- 
pumps, which only lifted the water about 10 feet, being quite 
unimportant. As only one man is required to attend to 
the engine, the wash-mill, and the pumps, and coal is worth 
$4.00 per ton delivered to the clay-pit, it is obvious that the 
cost for current expenses (taking the consumption at 4 pounds 
per I. H. P. per hour) will not exceed two cents per yard of 
earth transported, or about one cent per ton per mile ; and 
when it is considered that the clay would have to be washed 
in any case, the cost for transport comes to less than one-half 
cent per ton per mile, which is probably the cheapest example 
of land transport on record, considering the distance. Unfor- 
tunately, the conditions of depth of slurry in the wash-mill, 
proportion of water in the slurry, and the speed of working 
varied so considerably that the results were very divergent. 
The above may be taken, however, as fairly approximate, as 
eight sets of diagrams were taken, and reduced by direct pro- 
portion (for want of a better rule) to a mean speed of the 
average of which has been given above. 

Single-Crank Engine without Fly- Wheel. — A steam- 
end and valve-motion for a single-cylinder crank-pump without 
a fly-wheel was ingeniously worked out by Shand, Mason & 
Co., London. This engine was designed by them to meet the 
objections taken to the fire-engines of this firm which carry a 



STEAM AXD POWER CRANK- PUMPS. 



I 9 I 



fly-wheel, and in consequence of this objectionable feature the 
pump cannot have the valves so arranged as to be as easy of 
access as they should , 

E ^ H 



Referring 



to 



3 
a 



be. 

the steam-end only, 
Figs. 151, 152, and 
153 illustrate the man- 
ner in which the im- 
proved valve arrange- 
ments have been 
carried out by which 
a continuous rotary 
motion of the crank- 
shaft is obtained. 
The crank is assisted 
past the dead centres 
without the aid of a 
fly-wheel by means of 
a piston fitted on the 
slide-rod, which latter 
is made to perform 
alternately the duties 
of a slide-rod and a 
connecting - rod. As 
a slide-rod it is im- 
pelled by the crank- 
shaft, whilst as a 
connecting - rod the 
crank-shaft is impelled 
by it. Fig. 151 is an 
elevation in part sec- L0J 
tion, Fig. 152 is a 
sectional plan, and 
Fig. 153 an end elevation, partly in section, of the arrange- 
ment for obtaining this result. 

On the crank-shaft of engines in which the steam-supply is 
regulated by a slide-valve an eccentric is fixed for the purpose 




192 



PUMPING MACHINERY. 



of giving motion to that valve. The position of the eccentric 
on the crank-shaft is considerably in advance of the crank, 

and usually above 
90 . Therefore, 
when the crank is at 
either of the dead 
centres, or at zero, 
the eccentric is in a 
favorable position 
for assisting the 
crank if auxiliary 
power were supplied 
to the slide when in 
this position. The 
slide would then be- 
come the motor of 
the crank-shaft, the 
eccentric would act 
as the crank, and the 
eccentric-rod would 
act as a connecting- 
rod. Thus, when the 
engine-crank is on 
either of its dead cen- 
tres, the slide auxil- 
iary would be in full 
action, and when the 
slide - eccentric (or 
crank) was on either 
of its dead centres, 
the engine - crank 
would be in full ac- 
tion. By turning 
these facts to ac- 
count, the designers obtain a continuous rotary motion of the 
crank-shaft, not requiring the moving of the crank past its 
dead centres for starting nor the momentum of a fly-wheel 




STEAM AND POWER CRANK- PUMPS. 



*93 




while in motion, as there are no dead points on which the 
engine would stop, and no part of its revolution at which it 
would not start. To obtain this auxiliary power the slide-rod 
is prolonged through the steam-chest into a small cylinder. 
On the slide-rod 
and in the small 
cylinder is a pis- 
ton, while there 
is provided in the 
steam - chest a 
small auxiliary 
slide, which is 
actuated by pro- 
jections on it for 
coming into con- 
tact with a pro- 
jection on the 
main slide-valve 

frame. The auxiliary valve is thus moved so as to admit the 
steam to, or to release it from, the small cylinder, thus 
actuating the piston fixed to the slide-rod, and through the 
slide connecting-rod or cross-head conveying motion to the 
small crank, and thus applying power for assisting the main 
crank over its dead centres. 

Referring to Figs. 151 and 152, A is the steam-valve; B y the 
frame enclosing that valve ; C, a small auxiliary valve ; D, the 
steam-chest ; £, a small auxiliary cylinder ; F, its piston ; G, a 
small crank for actuating the slide ; H, the engine-crank work- 
ing in a cross-head ; I, the engine-cylinder; and J, its piston. 
The piston is shown at the beginning of its stroke, the crank 
H on the dead centre, and the small crank G in position for 
opening the steam-port K, and at about 100° in advance of the 
crank H. During the time the crank //is on the centre, steam 
is passing through the small port L and along the pipe M to 
the end of the auxiliary cylinder E, and pressing the piston 
F in the direction of the arrow will move the crank H by 
the crank G past its dead centre into a position in which it 

I n 17 



194 



PUMPING MACHIXERY. 



has power. The crank H will then carry the crank G to its 
dead centre, and the slide A to the end of its stroke. Mean- 
while, the pro- 
jection N on 
the sling B will 
touch the pro- 
jection on the 
slide C and push 
it across the 
port Z, opening 
the same to the 
exhaust, and 
opening the 
port 5 at the 
other end of 
the auxiliary 
slide, and ad- 
mitting steam 
to the other side 
of the small 
piston F, to re- 
peat the action 
on the opposite 
dead centres, the 
two cranks thus 
continuing to 
assist each 
other, and main- 
taining a con- 
tinuous rotation 
of the crank- 
shaft P. The 
small crank G 
represents the 
usual eccentric for working the slide-valve, its action being the 
same; but, to avoid friction, its diameter has., been reduced, 
and it is called a crank. 




STEAM AND POWER CRANK-PUMFS. 



19! 



3 



A geared pump with eccentrics adapted to a duplex 
water-end is shown in elevation in Fig. 154, and in plan in Fig. 
155. This particular 
pump has a water-end 8 
inches bore by 12 inches 
stroke, similar to the 
sectional elevation, Fig. 
116. This pump has 
been working continu- 
ously for three years 
past at a pressure aver- 
aging more than 100 
pounds per square inch. 

It was with some 
hesitancy that the 
writer adopted eccen- 
trics when designing 
this pump, but the suc- 
cess attending the prac- 
tical working of a num- 
ber of power -pumps 
thus operated has com- 
pletely dispelled any 
first doubts had regard- 
ing the employment of 
eccentrics for pumps of 
12 inches stroke. 
Pump-plungers of short 
stroke operated by 
eccentrics have long 
been in use in this 
country for boiler-feed- 
ing and other purposes, 
and have rendered good 

and economical service. An advantage which such a train 
of mechanism offers is its compactness. In this design the 
eccentrics are bolted to the main gear, no power being trans- 










] 







J 
J) 








196 



PUMPING MACHINERY. 




STEAM AND POWER CRANK-PUMPS. 



197 



mitted through the shaft, which serves only to take the thrust 
of the water-plungers. 

A geared crank-pump, such as shown in side elevation 
in Fig. 156, and in end elevation in Fig. 157, is the kind recom- 

mended for 

. Fig. 157. 

large pumps; 

that is to say, 
wat e r-en ds 
having plung- 
ers 14 inches 
in diameter by 
18 inches 
stroke, and 
larger. Pumps 
of this kind 
must be made 
to suit the 
conditions of 
service f o r 
each installa- 
tion. Greater 
strength is 
commonly giv- 
en geared pow- 
er-pumps than 

is thought to suffice for steam-pumps, and especially is this 
the case when a pump is to be driven by a train of gearing 
attached to a water-wheel. In direct-acting steam-pumps 
there is always an elastic cushion of steam in the cylinders 
with which to resist sudden jars or vibrations in the water 
column, but if a water-wheel be employed, its rate of revolu- 
tion being so much greater than that of the pump crank- 
shaft, together with the fact that there is an inelastic medium 
at both ends of the pumping machine, unusual strains occur, 
for which ample provision must be made in the strength of 

parts ; it is also the common practice to operate such pumps 

17* 




198 



PUMPING MACHINERY. 



at lower piston-speeds than in the case of steam-pumps. For 
ordinary steam-pumps the writer uses a factor of safety of ten, 
but for pumps of this class he does not consider it prudent to 
employ a factor of less than fifteen. 

Electrical pumps, so called because driven by an electric 
motor, are now being introduced, especially in the smaller 




W/" 



sizes, in such localities as do not readily afford either steam 
or belt power. The experimental introduction of electrical 



STEAM AND POWER CRANK-PUMPS. 1 99 

pumps in mining operations promises well, but thus far no 
reliable data has been published in which a comparison of the 
best type of direct-acting engines has been brought into 
direct competition with electric-motor pumps when handling 
any considerable quantity of water, or when working under 
heads similar to that called for in mines. No distinct type or 
design of pump for this use has yet been adopted or followed 
by leading pump-makers, the common practice being to simply 
attach the electric motor to the pinion-shaft of any power- 
pump of a size and type best suited to the work to be done. 

The illustration, Fig. 158, represents a compact and well- 
designed arrangement of a three-throw plunger-pump and 
electric motor, with double gearing to adapt the two speeds to 
each other. The pump is not a large one, it having a capacity 
somewhat less than 100 gallons per minute, the ratio of 
gearing being suited to a delivery of 600 feet in height. 



200 PUMPING MACHINERY. 



CHAPTER X. 



DIRECT-ACTING STEAM-PUMPS. 



A direct-acting steam-pump is one in which the water 
and the steam-ends are centrallv in line with each other, so 
that the water-plunger and the steam-piston can be attached 
to. the same piston-rod, both working together without the 
intervention of a crank. This makes the simplest and most 
compact form of steam pumping engine, and in its application 
to all the ordinary operations of pumping outnumbers by far 
all other varieties of pumping machines combined, and this 
notwithstanding the fact that the ordinary direct-acting steam- 
pump is, perhaps, the most wasteful and extravagant form of 
steam-engine in use at this time. The remarkable growth of 
the direct-acting pump business may be explained in part by 
the commercial practice, which most buyers closely adhere to, 
and that is to pay the least possible price for a pump, just as 
they do for everything else. The direct-acting pump can be 
more cheaply built than can a crank-pump for any given 
capacity, and is, therefore, able to meet any possible compe- 
tition in that direction ; they also occupy less space than a 
crank and fly-wheel pump, and thus compete sharply where 
space is valuable enough to take that fact into account ; they 
weigh much less than crank-pumps, so that for use on ship- 
board the lighter pump is generally chosen. 

The practical workings of the leading designs of direct- 
acting pumps have, in the main, been satisfactory from the 
beginning ; it is true that many and important changes have 
been made in the valve-gear from time to time, so as to give 
the steam-end the appearance of an entirely different design 
from the original, but a close examination of the fundamental 



DIRECT-ACTING STEAM-PUMPS. 201 

principles would show that the departure was much less than 
at first imagined. Two distinct types appeared about the 
same time nearly fifty years ago ; one in which the main 
steam-valve was mechanically moved by a tappet-arm secured 
to the piston-rod, operating adjustable stops attached to the 
valve-rod ; of this type the Worthington single pump is a 
familiar example to the older engineers, the manufacture of 
this particular design of pump having been discontinued for 
several years. The other type was fitted with an auxiliary 
steam-cylinder for operating the main valve by steam-pressure, 
the pistons in the auxiliary cylinder being controlled by a 
separate driving mechanism worked from the main piston-rod 
of the pump, of this type the Knowles pump is a familiar 
example. 

The Knowles Valve Motion. — Fig. 159 is a sectional 
view of the steam-cylinder and valve motion of the Knowles 
pump. The construction is described as follows : An auxiliary 
piston works in the steam-chest and drives the main valve. 
This auxiliary, or " chest-piston," as it is called, is driven 
backwards and forwards by the pressure of steam, carrying 
with it the main valve, which valve, in turn, gives steam to 
the main steam-piston that operates the pump. The main 
valve is a plain slide-valve of the B form, working on a flat 
seat. 

The chest-piston is slightly rotated by the valve motion ; 
this rotative movement places the small steam-ports (which 
are located in the under side of the chest-piston) in proper 
contact with corresponding ports cut in the steam-chest. The 
steam entering through the port at one end and filling the 
space between the chest-piston and the head, drives the said 
piston to the end of its stroke and, as before mentioned, 
carries the main slide-valve with it. When the chest-piston 
has travelled a certain distance, a port on the opposite end is 
uncovered and steam there enters, stopping its farther travel 
by giving it the necessary cushion. In other words, when 
the rotative motion is given to the auxiliary or valve-driving 



202 



PUMPING MACHINERY. 



piston by the mechanism outside, it opens the port to steam 
admission on one end, and at the same time opens the port 
on the other end to the exhaust. Thus instant and positive 
motion is secured with but few working parts. There is no 
point in the stroke at which either the chest-piston or the 
main piston is not open to direct steam-pressure. A descrip- 
tion of the operation of the pump is as follows : The piston- 
rod, with its tappet-arm, moves backwards and forwards from 



Fig. 159. 



CMEST pist on , 




the impulse given by the steam-piston. At the lower part of 
this tappet-arm is attached a stud or bolt on which there is a 
friction-roller. This roller, coming in contact with the " rocker- 
bar" at the end of each stroke, operates the latter. The mo- 
tion given the " rocker-bar" is transmitted to the valve-rod by 
means of the connection between, causing the valve-rod to 
partially rotate. This action operates the chest-piston, which 
carries with it the main slide-valve. The said valve giving 




DIRECT-ACTING STEAM- PUMPS. 



203 



steam to the main piston, the operation of the pump is com- 
plete and continuous. The upper end of the tappet-arm does 
not come in contact with the tappets on the valve-rod, except 
the steam-pressure from any cause fail to move the chest-piston, 
in which case the tappet-arm moves it mechanically. 

The friction-roller on the tappet-arm may be lowered or 
raised when desired, to adjust the pump for a longer or 
shorter stroke. 

The Cameron Valve Motion.— A sectional view of the 
steam-cylinder of the Cameron pump with its valve motion is 
shown in Fig. 160 

A is the steam-cylinder ; C, the piston ; D, the piston-rod ; 
L, the steam-chest ; F, the chest-piston or plunger, the right- 

Fig. 160. 




hand end of which is shown in section ; G, the slide-valve ; 
H, a starting-bar connected with a handle on the outside ; // 
are reversing-valves ; K K are the bonnets over reversing- 
valve chambers; and E E are exhaust ports leading from the 
ends of steam-chest direct to the main exhaust and closed by 



204 



PUMPING MACHINERY. 



the reversing-valves II; TV is the body piece connecting the 
steam- and water-cylinders. 

The operation of the pump is as follows : Steam is admitted 
to the steam-chest, and, through small holes in the ends of 
the plunger F, fills the spaces at the ends and the ports E E as 
far as the reversing-valves //. With the plunger i^and slide- 
valve G in position to the right (as shown in the cut), steam 
would be admitted to the right-hand end of the steam-cylin- 
der A, and the piston C would be moved to the left. When 
it reaches the reversing-valve 7, it opens it and exhausts the 
space at the left-hand end of the plunger F, through the 
passage E ; the expansion of steam at the right-hand end 
changes the position of the plunger F, and with it the slide- 
valve G, and the motion of the piston C is instantly reversed. 
The same operation repeated makes the motion continuous. 
In its movement the plunger F acts as a slide-valve to shut 
off the ports E E, and is cushioned on the confined steam 
between the ports and steam-chest cover. The reversing- 
valves II are closed immediately the piston C leaves them, 
by a pressure of steam on their outer ends, conveyed direct 
from the steam-chest. 



The Blake Valve Motion. — Fig. 161 shows sectional views 
of the steam-cylinder, valves, etc., of Blake's steam-pump. 
The following is the description of the operation of the 
valves given in the company's catalogue : 

The main or pump driving-piston A could not be made to 
work slowly were the main valve to derive its movement 
solely from this piston ; for when this valve had reached the 
centre of its stroke, in which position the ports leading to the 
main cylinder would be closed, no steam could enter the 
cylinder to act on said piston, consequently the latter would 
come to rest, since its momentum would be insufficient to 
keep it in motion, and the main valve would remain in its 
central position or " dead centre." To shift this valve from 
its central position and admit steam in front of the main 
piston (whereby the motion of the piston is reversed and its 



DIRECT-ACTING STEAM-PUMPS. 



20; 



action continued), some agent independent of the main piston 
must be used. In the Blake pump this independent agent is 
the supplemental or valve driving-piston B. 

The main valve, which controls the admission of steam to 
and the escape of steam from the main cylinder, is divided 



Fig. 161. 



BXHAUST 




into two parts, one of which, C, slides upon a seat on the 
main cylinder, and at the same time affords a seat for the other 
part, D, which slides upon the upper face of C. As shown in 



206 



FUMPIXG MA CHIXER Y. 



the engravings, D is at the left-hand end of its stroke and C 
at the opposite or right-hand end of its stroke. Steam from 
the steam-chest J is therefore entering the right-hand end of 
the main cylinder through the ports E and H, and the exhaust 
is escaping through the ports i/ 1 , E 1 , K, and 31, which 
causes the main piston A to move from right to left. When 
this piston has nearly reached the left-hand end of its cylinder 
the valve motion (not shown) moves the valve-rod P, and thus 
causes C, together with its supplemental valves R and 5" S 1 
(which form, with C % one casting), to be moved from right to 
left. This movement causes steam to be admitted to the left- 
hand end of the supplemental cylinder, whereby its piston B 
will be forced towards the right, earning D with it to the 
opposite or right-hand end of its stroke; for the movement 
of S closes N (the steam-port leading to the right-hand end), 
and the movement of 5 1 opens X x (the steam-port leading to 
the opposite or left-hand end), at the same time the movement 
of V opens the right-hand end of this cylinder to the exhaust, 
through the exhaust-ports X and Z. The parts C and D now 
have positions opposite to those shown in the engravings, and 
steam is therefore entering the main cylinder through the 
ports E 1 and H\ and escaping through the ports H, E, K y 
and 31, which will cause the main piston A to move in the 
opposite direction, or from left to right, and operations simi- 
lar to those already described will follow, when the piston 
approaches the right-hand end of its cylinder. By this simple 
arrangement the pump is rendered positive in its action ; that 
is, it will instantly start and continue working the moment 
steam is admitted to the steam-chest. 

The main piston A cannot strike the heads of its cylinder; 
for the main valve has a lead, or, in other words, steam is 
always admitted in front of said piston just before it reaches 
either end of its cylinder, even should the supplemental piston 
B be tardy in its action and remain with D at that end 
towards which the piston A is moving, for C would be moved 
far enough to open the steam-port leading to the main cylinder, 
since the possible travel of C is greater than that of D. 



DIRECT- A CTING STEAM-PUMPS. 



207 



The supplemental piston B cannot strike the heads of its 
cylinder, for in its alternate passage beyond the exhaust-ports 
X and A' 1 , it cushions on the vapor entrapped in the ends of 
this cylinder. 



Motion.— The 



longitudinal 



and 



The Clarkson Valve 
transverse section of a 
direct - acting steam- 
cylinder, shown in Fig. 
162, presents some 
peculiarities which are 
quite interesting. 

This pump is one of 
a large class in which 
the motion of the steam 
distributing - valve is 
made quite automatic, 
all eccentrics, tappets, 
or valve-gear of any 
kind being dispensed 
with. The means by 
which the valve is made 
to move are here very 
simple. The valve is 
cylindrical, and capable 
of an endlong motion, 
without rotation, steam- 
tight, in a cylindrical 
box placed on the top 
of the steam-cylinder. 
By means of closed 
ends and the two trans- 
verse partitions the 
valve is divided into 
three separate compart- 
ments. The steam-ports of the cylinder terminate, or rather 
commence, in openings into the bottom of the valve-chamber, 




31 
a 






208 PUMPING MACHINERY. 

while the steam-pipe terminates in two openings in the top of 
the same chamber. The end compartments of the valve have 
holes top and bottom so arranged that in certain positions 
they allow free communication between the cylinder-port and 
the steam-pipe ; the steam on being admitted to the cylinder, 
therefore, passes through these compartments. The middle 
compartment is open on the under side, and serves just the 
same purpose as the hollow under an ordinary slide-valve, 
making the communication between the steam- and exhaust- 
ports. The steam-piston is double-ended, the space between 
the two ends being always in free communication with the 
exhaust by means of a hole in the cylinder-wall. The clear 
distance between what are virtually the two pistons must 
therefore be equal to the stroke of the engine plus the width 
of the hole just mentioned. Two small holes about )/§ inch 
diameter are also made in the side of the cylinder, and pass- 
ages from these communicate with the two ends of the valve- 

o 

chamber, each hole communicating with the end which is 
farthest from it. These holes are so placed that when the 
piston is at or near either end of its stroke one of them 
opens into the space between the piston (and consequently 
into the exhaust), and the other into the cylinder beyond one 
of the pistons. 

We can now describe the action of the valve. When it is 
in the position shown, the steam passing downwards through 
the right-hand compartment of the valve forces the piston 
from right to left, the steam on the left of the piston exhaust- 
ing freely through the centre of the valve. As soon as the 
right-hand piston passes the small hole, however, steam rushes 
through it, and throws the valve suddenly over from left to 
right (for the other end of the valve is in communication with 
the exhaust), and so admits fresh steam against the left-hand 
piston, and allows that which has just been doing the work to 
be discharged. At the end of the stroke the piston is again 
in the position shown in the engraving, the valve is thrown 
over from right to left, and so the operations go on ad 
infinitum. 



DIRECT-ACTING STEAM-PUMPS. 



209 



The object of the small brass handle seen in the cross- 
section is to start the engine if the valves should happen to 
have stopped in the wrong place when the pump last ceased 



working. 



Dean Brothers' Valve-Gear. — The motion of the auxil- 
iary steam slide-valve is continuous like that derived from an 
eccentric. All other steam-pumps have an intermittent motion. 
The ports leading to the chest-piston are closed, except at the 
moment the main piston is being reversed ; hence there can 
be no " blow through" 

or waste of steam in ' l 3* 

t — > 

case the chest-piston 
becomes worn. The 
stroke of pump can be 
instantly regulated by 
moving the stud in slot 
at the upper end of 
lever. If raised, the 
pump will make shorter 
strokes ; if lowered, it 
will make longer 
strokes. 

The advantages 
claimed for this steam- 
valve gear are : It is 

noiseless. The auxiliary valve, having a long stroke and a 
rapid motion, insures a prompt reversal of the piston at the 
proper time. There can be no waste of steam or poor working 
incident to the wearing of chest-piston. It is durable and 
positive. The stroke of pump can be instantly changed. 

Action of Valve-Gear. — The auxiliary valve F slides on 
the valve-seat E 2 , and is provided on its under side with 
diagonal exhaust-cavities d d J . The ports b b x and exhaust- 
port c are arranged in the shape of a triangle, and the diagonal 
cavities diverge from each other, whereby the cavity d connects 
18* 




2IO 



PUMPING MACHINERY. 



the ports b and c, and cavity d 1 connects the ports b l and c 
when the valve F is in extreme positions. 

The operation is as follows : When the main piston moves 
from left to right, the valve F is moved in an opposite direction, 
opening the port b 1 , admitting steam to the sub-cylinder F x at 
the moment the main piston has reached the limit of its stroke, 
whereby the auxiliary piston E is forced to the left, opening 

the main port and 
admitting steam to 
the steam-cylinder, 
consequently rever- 
sing the movement 
of. the main piston. 
On the return stroke 
of the main piston 
the movement of 
the auxiliary valve 
is reversed, whereby 
the port b 1 is closed, 
and at the moment 
the main piston has 
reached the limit of 
its outer stroke, the 
port b is opened by 
the valve F f causing 
the auxiliary piston 
E to reverse its mo- 
tion, opening the 
main port and re- 
versing the motion 
of the main piston. 
By this continu- 
ous movement of the auxiliary slide-valve the ports b and b 1 
are kept closed, except at the end of each stroke, at the 
moment the main piston is reversed. This prevents any 
waste of steam in case the auxiliary piston is worn enough 
to leak as the ports b and b 1 are closed. The arrangement 




DIRECT-ACTING STEAM-PUMPS. 



211 




55 






212 PUMPING MACHINERY. 

of ports admits of a short valve with a long travel. The 
length of stroke of pump can be regulated by moving the 
stud G 2 up or down in the segmental slot G 1 , as this varies 
the travel of the auxiliary valve, thereby reversing the stroke 
of main piston earlier or later. The action is noiseless. 

Davidson Valve Motion. — The mechanism of this valve 
is illustrated in the accompanying drawing, Fig. 164. Its 
principal peculiarity consists in the fact that it is moved both 
by direct steam-pressure and by mechanical connection with 
the main piston-rod of the engine. The cylindrical steam- 
chest Ikfis bored out to make a face for the valve A and the 
pistons B and B' ', which assist in operating the valve. Suffi- 
cient space is allowed between the pistons for the valve and 
the steam-ports. In the exhaust-steam passage is placed a 
cylindrical cam, which is rocked back and forth by an arm 
connecting with a cross-head clamped to the piston-rod. This 
cam engages with a steel pin in the centre of the valve, and is 
of such shape that it moves the valve back and forth, and also 
oscillates the valve on its axis. By oscillating the valve small 
passages are opened and closed, opening either end of the 
valve-case alternately to steam and to exhaust. This gives a 
quick opening of the ports and largely relieves the valve 
motion of friction and wear. 

When one of the main steam-ports f is completely open, 
admitting steam to the cylinder and driving main piston, cam, 
and valve in direction shown by arrows, the first movement of 
the cam will be to oscillate the valve preparatory to bringing 
it in proper position for the opening of the auxiliary steam- 
port e to live steam, and e' to exhaust. It will then bring the 
valve to its closure (mechanically) slightly before the end of the 
stroke of main piston, thereby causing slight cut-off and com- 
pression. It will then fully open the auxiliary port ^to steam, 
and e' to exhaust. The admission of steam to one end of the 
valve-piston, the other being open to exhaust, throws the valve 
in the direction shown by the arrow, admitting and exhausting 
steam to and from the main cylinder for the return stroke. 



DIRECT-ACTING STEAM-PUMPS. 



213 



The advantages of this arrangement are that the pump has 
no dead centre, the auxiliary ports e and c' being opened 
whenever the main steam-ports f and f are closed. The 
closing of the valve before the piston reaches the end of the 
stroke eases the action of the pump and prevents the piston 
from striking the cylinder- heads. The fact that the valve is 
moved mechanically as well as by steam also insures a uniform 
length of stroke. 

The Marsh valve-gear is shown in the sectional engrav- 
ing, Fig. 165, which engraving also includes the water- valves 
already described. This valve movement has no external 
mechanism, the movements of the steam-actuated valve being- 
controlled by the movement of the stearn-piston, and con- 

Fig. 165. 




versely. A section of the steam-chest on a larger scale is 
shown in Fig. 165 A, and another detail of the valve in Fig. 
165 B. The valve is solid and all in one piece, except that 
one head is screwed on, as shown in the engraving. 



214 



PUMPING MACHINERY. 



The steam-valve does not require setting. It has no dead 
centre, and will always start when the steam is admitted. The 
steam-piston, as shown, is double, and each head is provided 
with a metal packing-ring, the interior space constituting a 
reservoir for live-steam pressure, supplied by the live-steam 
pipe through a drilled hole shown by dotted lines. At each 

Fig. 165 A. 




end of the steam-cylinder are similar holes leading to each 
end of steam-chest, which, together with the centrally-drilled 
hole and the space between the piston-heads, constitute posi- 
tive means for tripping or reversing the valve with live steam. 
The governing element of the valve is the enlarged heads, 
which present differential areas to the action of steam. The 

Fig. 165 B. 




inner area of the valve-head is reduced by an amount equal 
to the cross- sectional area of the valve body, and is acted 
upon by live-steam pressure, which varies with the annular 
opening of the valve due to linear movement. The outer area 
of the valve- head is larger, and is acted upon by the pressure 
that moves the main piston. The working pressure in the 



DIRECT ACTING STEAM PUMPS. 



215 



main cylinder acting upon the larger area of the valve tends 
to increase the annular opening of the valve, while the in- 
coming steam acting upon the smaller area of the valve-head 
tends to reduce the annular opening. Each movement finds 
its limit in the preponderance of the opposing force. If the 
piston moves easily much pressure cannot exist in the steam- 
cylinder, as the piston would rapidly fly away from it, and as 
the pressure in the steam-cylinder and outer end of valve- 
chamber is always the same, the larger area of the valve-head 
would have slight force to enlarge the portage when the piston 
moved easily. On the other hand, if the piston moved hard, 
or against much resistance, the pressure in the cylinder would 
readily augment, and the larger area of the valve-head would 
overcome the resistance of the inner area and increase the 
portage of the valve. 

The Guild and Garrison valve motion differs mate- 

Fig 166. 




p Ill & 



rially in its arrangement from other steam-thrown valves, in 
that while the final stroke of the main valve is effected by a 



2l6 



PUMPING MACHINERY. 



difference in steam-pressures, the greater part of its movement 
is mechanically controlled by the steam-piston. A sectional 
elevation of this valve-motion is shown in Fig. 166, and in 
longitudinal elevation showing the exterior moving parts in 
Fig. 167. 

Fig. 167. 




The steam-chest is a rectangular chamber; in its interior 
are two small cylindrical openings, one at each end ; there is 
also at the side a raised seat for the auxiliary valve ; these are 
part of the casting. Small ports run from the ends of the 
small cylinders to the seat of the auxiliary valve and to the 
main exhaust-port. A plain cylindrical casting, each end con- 
stituting a piston, fits into the small cylinders. This piece, 
called the valve-driver, has two slots or openings at its centre, 
the lower one just large enough to receive a lug on the back 
of the main steam-valve, the top one being intended to receive 
the large toe of the rock-shaft. The rock-shaft crosses the 
steam-chest at right angles to the movement of the valves ; it 
is made of steel and has two toes, the larger one engaging 



DIRECT-ACTING STEAM-PUMPS. 



217 



with the valve-driver by means of the slot just mentioned, and 
the smaller toe fitting into the back of the auxiliary valve. 
There is no lost motion in the latter. Both the main steam- 
valve and the auxiliary valve are plain flat slide-valves, and 
there are no ports whatever in the valve-driver. By means of 
a lever and link connected with the piston-rod, any motion of 
the rod causes the rock-shaft to rotate and the steam-valves 
to move in unison. 

The office of the main steam-valve, is, of course, to admit 
steam into, or permit it to exhaust from, the main steam-cylin- 
der of the pump; the auxiliary valve performs the same office 
for the valve-driver cylinders in the chest, both being actuated 
by the toes upon the rock-shaft. The auxiliary valve is a D- 
valve, and its action is precisely the same as a D slide-valve 
in a steam-engine, and its effect upon the valve-driver is exactly 
the same as if it were a piston of a steam-engine. 

In operation, the piston being at the end of its stroke and 
the pump about to be started, steam is admitted, and the main 
steam-piston moves forward ; simultaneously motion is com- 
municated to the rock-shaft by means of its connection with 
the piston-rod, the valve-driver and the auxiliary valve are 
mechanically moved at the same time and in the same direction 
as the steam-piston. This action continues until the piston 
has nearly completed its stroke, when the auxiliary valve un- 
covers the small steam passage leading to one of the chest- 
cylinders, steam enters the latter and exhausts from the oppo- 
site chest-cylinder ; the valve-driver is thereby driven ahead, 
carrying the main steam-valve with it. The travel of the 
main valve is thus completed, and it is brought in position to 
reverse the stroke of the main steam-piston. If the pump 
were now stopped, the valves would be found to occupy the 
same relative position as at the beginning of the stroke, the 
valve-driver having been carried forward ready to meet the 
contact of the large toe on the rock-shaft upon its return. 

It will be seen from this description that the valve-driver, 
or in effect the main steam-valve, is not dependent for the 
greater part of its movement upon differences of steam-press- 
k 19 



218 



PUMPING MACHINERY. 






ure, but that so long as the main pistons act it is compelled 
to respond to their motion ; and that when steam is finally 
admitted to and exhausted from the chest-cylinders, this valve 
is already in motion, and requires but a slight additional im- 
pulse to finish its throw. It is also apparent that as the 
motion of the auxiliary valve is practically continuous, there 
can be no dead point, and that the pump will start from any 
part of its stroke and run with a uniform motion. 

The advantages claimed for this arrangement are positive 
action and good wearing qualities. The construction is simple 
and easily understood upon inspection. 

The isochronal valve-gear, by the Gordon Steam-Pump 
Company. Fig. 168 represents a steam pumping engine with 

Fig. 168. 




an ordinary steam-moved valve, the auxiliary valve being 
moved by a lever driven by the main piston-rod. This lever 
takes hold of a sliding-cylinder, H t whose piston, G, is fixed 




DIRECT ACTING STEAM PUMPS. 2 [9 

upon a prolongation of the rod of the auxiliary piston. A 
cock, L, places the two ends of this cataract-cylinder H in 
communication, and makes the passage free or restricted as 
required by circumstances. 

Assume the cataract-cylinder to be empty. The machine 
will then act as usual. At the end of a stroke the auxiliary 
valve will be opened, and the auxiliary piston will open the 
main steam-valve the full width, and so on for each stroke, 
the cataract-piston not interfering at all with the usual move- 
ment of the auxiliary piston. If something happens to the 
discharge system, such, for instance, as the bursting of a main, 
it is obvious that the unresisted pump-piston will be shot for- 
ward with the full force of the steam, and damage is liable to 
ensue. It is the office of the cataract-cylinder to prevent ex- 
cessive motion. of the main parts in such an emergency and 
to insure a uniform piston-speed. 

The cataract-cylinder is filled with liquid, and it is obvious 
that the auxiliary piston in making its usual stroke must 
needs pass the cataract liquid from one end of the cataract- 
cylinder to the other, the cock L being so adjusted that this 
transfer of the liquid can take place just so fast and no faster. 

It follows that the auxiliary piston, at proper pumping 
speeds, is uninterfered with by the cataract-piston, the liquid 
simply passing from one end of the cylinder to the other. 

The cataract-cylinder is always moving, and in case the 
pump-piston should, by reason of resistance being removed, 
attempt to jump ahead, the liquid in the cataract-cylinder 
would have to pass much more rapidly through its restricted 
passages. This it refuses to do ; therefore the cataract-cylin- 
der imparts, through the medium of its liquid, more or less 
of its motion to the auxiliary piston and to the main valve, 
thus closing the main valve more or less. Briefly, if the 
pump seeks to move too fast it automatically affects a closure 
of its valve, and if the pump moves too slowly the steam- 
pressure upon the auxiliary piston preponderates over the 
cataract resistance and an opening of the main valve is 
effected. By this simple device complete control is had over 



220 PUMPING MACHINERY. 

the main parts. With it we do not think it possible that 
serious damage could occur to a direct-acting steam pumping 
engine. Cases have occurred in large machines where a dis- 
charge-valve has been blown out, thus letting the full head of 
water against the plunger on the back stroke. This would 
mean destruction to an ordinary machine. The isochronal 
machine, as its makers aver, " continues the even tenor of its 
way under such circumstances." The makers test all pump- 
ing machines under steam and full load, and one of the tests 
of the isochronal is to restrict the discharge to the merest trifle 
of an outlet. While the machine is working against this im- 
mense resistance they suddenly open the discharge-valve full 
width, thus removing all of the resistance.- i The cataract- 
cylinder asserts itself and no running away occurs ; in fact, 
hardly a perceptible change occurs. 

Valve-Gear with Cataract. — The steam-end illustrated 
in Fig. 169 was designed by the writer, and exhibits the some- 
what unusual feature in a steam-cylinder for a single direct- 
acting pump in its having five ports ; but it may be explained 
that this valve motion was so designed that the same steam- 
cylinder, such as used for duplex pumps, might be used for 
single pumps also, the principal business at the time being 
the manufacture of duplex pumps. The economic advantages 
secured by this design in the factory consisted in the employ- 
ment in common, by both styles of pumps, of the steam-cylin- 
der, slide-valve (with slight alterations for driving it), piston, 
piston-rod, cylinder-heads, and stuffing-box. Instead of the 
ordinary steam-chest, such as usually furnished duplex pumps, 
a special one was made not unlike those in common use for 
single pumps, and which in our description we will call the 
auxiliary cylinder. This cylinder has a double piston, one 
fitted to each end, and midway between these two pistons are 
collars for driving the main slide-valve. This auxiliary cylin- 
der, like the main steam-cylinder, is provided with five ports, 
and covering these is a plain flat slide-valve receiving its 
motion from a rocker- arm, the shaft of which is operated by 




DIRECT-ACTING STEAM- PUMPS. 



221 



the swinging 



movement of a lever driven by the cross-head 
attached to the main piston-rod. 

The two outer ports are for steam, the three inner ones are 
for the exhaust. The slide-valve has no lap or lead on either 
the steam or exhaust sides, consequently a steam- and its cor- 
responding exhaust-port must be open from end to end of the 
stroke. When the piston travels past an exhaust-port it 
thereby cuts off all escape of exhaust steam from the cylin- 



Fig. 169. 




V//////////A 



der, and compresses the remaining portion, which is a suffi- 
cient cushion to prevent the piston striking the heads. 

The small slide-valve above the auxiliary piston distributes 
the steam so as to give motion to the piston underneath by 
admitting steam at one end of the auxiliary cylinder, and un- 
covering the exhaust-port leading from the other end, the 
effect of which is to cause the auxiliary piston to move with 
the pressure, a movement which continues until its forward 
edge closes the exhaust-port, cushions the pent-up exhaust 
steam, and with the increasing pressure thus obtained the 

19* 



222 PUMPING MACHIXERY. 

piston gradually comes to a state of rest ; at the same time 
that this movement is going on the main slide-valve has been 
carried by the auxiliary piston in the same direction, effecting 
a corresponding opening of the steam- and exhaust-ports in 
the main cylinder, and producing a similar movement of the 
main piston. When the main piston approaches and finally 
reaches the end of its stroke the vibrating lever driven by the 
main cross-head gives the segmental tappet a partial rotation, 
which through the intervention of a rocker-arm and valve-rod 
carries the small slide-valve over to the opposite end of the 
valve-chest, and the whole operation is then reversed. 

The steam from the boiler is admitted to the main steam- 
chest ; that is to say, to that space between. the two auxiliary 
pistons in which the main slide-valve is located ; as the pistons 
are both of the same area, they are not influenced in any way 
by this pressure. There is a small hole (not shown in the 
drawing) drilled from the steam-chest for the small slide-valve 
over the auxiliary pistons, down into the steam space below, 
so that boiler-pressure is also had for operating the auxiliary 
pistons. The exhaust from the small slide-valve may lead 
down into the main exhaust cavity, or into the atmosphere. 

The adjustable cataract shown in the engraving was for the 
purpose of steadying the movement of the auxiliary piston. 
It consists of a piston and rod connecting directly to the aux- 
iliary piston, so that their movements may be identical. The 
rods pass through both ends of both cylinders, so that no 
unbalanced pressures occur in the auxiliary steam-cylinder, 
and no difference in areas exists in the two ends of the cataract- 
cylinder. This latter cylinder has but one port extending 
from end to end, as shown in the drawing; between the two 
ends a slotted plug is inserted, by the partial rotation of which 
any amount of opening from a full port to absolute closure 
may be secured. This cylinder is to be filled with any con- 
venient fluid, mineral oil, for example, and the plug inserted ; 
it is then ready for service. The function of the cataract is' 
to control the movement of the auxiliary piston and prevent 
a violent movement by requiring the displacement of the oil 



DIRECT-ACTING STEAM-PUMFS. 



223 



Fig. 170. 




on one side of the cataract- 
piston, forcing it through the 
slotted plug and emptying 
into the opposite end of the 
cylinder ; by a partial rota- 
tion of this plug a greater 
or less resistance is secured, 
by which a quicker or slower 
movement of the auxiliary 
piston and main slide-valve 
is also secured. Once this 
plug is adjusted to the work 
to be done by the main 
pump, no further attention 
need be given it, as the 
pump will continue to op- 
erate at this fixed number of 
strokes per minute whether 
there is any load on the 
pump or not. 



The deep -well pump- 
ing engine, or artesian-well 
pump, as commonly called, 
illustrated in Fig. 170, is an 
adaptation of the same kind 
of valve motion as that just 
described, differing only in a 
few minor points of detail. 
No cataract is supplied this 



224 PUMPING MACHINERY. 

steam-end, as another method of governing is employed. The 
ports, main valve, auxiliary piston, and small slide-valve are 
substantially the same in design. The method of moving the 
tappets is different, and is probably the best device of the two, 
as it is easier to make any needed adjustments than with the 
segmental tappets. 

Two dangerous accidents are likely to occur in deep-well 
pumping, — one, the breakage of a pump-rod, the other, a fail- 
ure of water-supply. Either of these is liable to damage the 
steam-end, if not to wholly wreck it, especially when pumping 
from great depths, unless some provision be made in advance 
to meet such a contingency should it occur. 

The cushioning of the exhaust is at once a convenient and 
satisfactory method of controlling the movement of the main 
piston. By reference to the engraving two semi-cylindrical 
plugs are shown in the exhaust-ports, the function of which 
is to control the flow of the exhaust steam from the cyhnder 
by giving these plugs a partial rotation so as to choke the 
exhaust ; a sufficient back pressure can be had to secure any 
desired rate of piston-speed, fast or slow, with a full load or 
without any load. As each plug may be separately adjusted, 
a separate movement may be secured to the upward or to 
the downward movement of the piston, adapting it to the 
depth of the well or to any other conditions of supply. 

Compounding Single Direct-Acting Pumps. — When 
so desired, single direct-acting steam-ends may be arranged 
for using steam expansively by the addition of a low-press- 
ure cylinder, tandem to that of the high. The slide-valve 
faces for the high- and low-pressure cylinders should be in 
the same plane by carrying up that of the smaller cylinder 
to the level of the larger. The slide-valve in the high-press- 
ure cylinder need not differ from that which would be used if 
no compounding were attempted. The auxiliary piston would 
differ only in having a rod passing through its cylinder-head 
into the steam-chest of the low-pressure cylinder. To balance 
the pressure, an extension of the same diameter should pass 



DIRECT-ACTING STEAM-PUMPS. 225 

through the opposite cylinder-head ; and if a similar extension 
be provided at the opposite end of the low-pressure steam- 
chest, the balance would then be complete. The auxiliary 
cylinder must be large enough to easily and promptly handle 
both slide-valves ; if this cylinder be one-half the diameter of 
the high-pressure cylinder, ample power ought to be secured 
for this purpose. The low-pressure valve may be a plain 
slide-valve, with a suitable adjusting device for fixing its rela- 
tion to the high-pressure valve, as these two valves must work 
together. 



P 



226 PUMPING MACHINERY. 



CHAPTER XL 

THE DUPLEX PUMP. 

The credit for the invention of what is commonly known 
as the duplex pump, distinguished for its almost ideal sim- 
plicity, with its peculiarly efficient valve motion, to which it 
owes its complete exemption from noise or concussive action, 
is due the late Henry R. YVorthington. 

It consists of two steam-pumps, of equal dimensions, 
placed side by side, with the valve motion so designed that 
the movement of the steam-piston of each pump shall have 
the controlling movement of trie slide-valve of its opposite 
pump, the effect of which is to allow one piston to proceed to 
the end of the stroke, and ^raduallv come to a state of rest; 
during the latter part of this movement the opposite piston 
then moves forward in its stroke, and also gradually comes to 
a state of rest ; but in its movement forward, and before 
reaching the end of its stroke, the slide-valve controlling the 
first piston is reversed, and in consequence the first piston re- 
turns to its original position, and in nearing the end of its 
stroke it, in a similar manner, reverses the slide-valve con- 
trolling the second piston ; these movements are both uniform 
and continuous so long as steam is supplied to the pistons. 

A sectional elevation through one of the steam-cvlinders 
of a duplex pump is shown in Fig. 171. To those not familiar 
with the construction of duplex pumps, a noticeable feature 
will be that the cylinder has five ports instead of three as in 
ordinary engines. The two end ports are for the admission 
of steam, the two inner ones are for its exhaust. The slide- 
valve has neither lap nor lead on either the steam or exhaust 
sides. The drawing shows the two ends of the steam-valve 
to be exactly on line with the outer edges of the steam-ports ; 



THE DUPLEX PUMP. 



227 



the face of the valve extends over the steam-port, the bridge, 
and to the inner edge of the exhaust-port, so that in its 



mmm 






present position no steam can enter or leave the cylinder. It 
will be understood that the piston movement of one engine 
controls the slide-valve not of its own cylinder, but the slide- 
valve belonging 

to the opposite FlG - l 7 2 - 

engine; this is 
accomplished 
by means of a 
cross-head se- 
curely fastened 
to the piston- 
rod operating a 
lever, with a 
shaft extending 
across the fram- 
ing of thepump, 
as shown in 
Fig. 172. The 
rocker-arms for 
moving the 
slide-valves are 

arranged one above the shaft and the other below it; this 
is for the purpose of securing for one engine a slide-valve 




: : ; PUMFB G MACHINERY. 

zr.z.tzztzz .::. i:~ iz'.'r.z.~ :.-::?. :-.:: z z'z.t ::i:±r :r.e :r. -r. 
:cc:fi:e ;t::::: ::.::: .i: r.: reversal: i: :r.e tzi ::" :he 
?:r:*:e : : . .. :i : : .:: 

In a direct-acting engine there is no controlling mechanism, 
such as a crank and connecting-rod, to prevent the piston 
overnnining its stroke ; the arrangement of five ports in the 
?:zi~~r.\:r.ie: tzztzzzi.'.y zrt.tz.Zi :..r ~:i::n ::n:ir.r; in : ::.- 
zzzzz :"- :Iit ..t - :-.".:. =:c:~l:ihei .: . :he :":..: inr; 
: ~ \:.:-- ~ :.t :\:z.i zzz'ztzz.tzr. :: z'zt :•'.::. if izt z: 
unbalanced pressure ; so long as the exhaust is open its for- 
• .■?.::. zzz. : tzztzz := z—. 7: : ..: ' z.zz. :he ; =:;r. zz 57 ; :ver 
: .7 . . z. t: :: rnzzizis: n:rz mere :zz z 7 z. : : znize: t : :z z e : :" 
7z:z. z. -: r.tzzz zz. :. zz.zt.tz zzzz.zir/ ;: s:e.in: 5/. : ..:. z- 
then remaining in the cylinder will be compressed between 
rzze :_ ■/.: ; ■--.::. z.z z. : : :. nzi z'zzt : ;z.z .ztz-.ztz. z :::zzz:r~ z:z 
elastic cushion and effectually preventing direct contact b e- 
tween the two. It is the practice to allow a considerable 
clearance in duplex steam-cylinders, for a 12-inch-stroke 
zzzz.z zizt z..:~~ zz.it zeinr ..?_.}. i i. z_: zs. .::. z.: tzzz zz. z 
:.:':.: : : z:z:: z ..: zt'izt zz. ; ..zz.: ii renzizez :zze =L:ic-v2.1ve 
:t.: ..;• z~ :: :/...- :;.:.:. zz .. hive .:::'. zz-.rrie-i zve: :: i:i 
: :s::e : = .: : : zzzt r. -z zz.-z :tf i . :re .:;;:.:::: zz. 1 :;.: reverii'. 
:: : :t ziizzn z:z: 7~e:.: ::: zz 

D=5"--?.rLr: TalTe-s.— In rhelir^er-Fizcr ::':;. inie- 
: :..:: ;: ~z;re in iiz.zzztzt: z iz.-iti zzz reinzez .zzz.z.zz 

7:z :-; 




is formed 

« : 7 z zz - Z. .". . 



: ::" rize -:ezzz>:; z.zzt: zzz'.veer. zz.t 
>rts; this opening is fitted with an 



THE DUPLEX PUMP. 



229 



adjustable valve so that a greater or less opening may be 
secured between these two ports. This arrangement, in one 
of its forms, is shown in Fig. 173. These are called dash- 
relief valves, and are intended to regulate the extent of 
cushioning, adapting it to the peculiarities of the piston 
movement, and to slightly lengthen the stroke after the piston 
has closed the exhaust-port, especially when the pump is 
working slowly and with a heavy load. This communication 
between the two ports, with its adjustable valve, is simply a 
controlled leak, useful in lengthening out the stroke in case 
of excessive cushioning. 



Lost motion between each valve and the nut by which it 
is driven is almost always necessary in the final adjustment of 
the slide-valve travel, it being a convenient method by which 
to equalize the length of stroke of the steam-pistons on the 
two sides of a duplex pump. The amount of lost motion 
necessary to the proper working of a pump cannot always be 
determined in advance, but after testing a few pumps from 
new patterns of any given size, an amount of lost motion 
necessary to that particular size or pattern of duplex pump is 
had, and from that point forward the same quantity of lost 
motion in duplicate pumps will secure substantially the same 
results as to piston travel. This is not absolute, but it is near 
enough to manufacture the parts, to assemble the pumps from 
such patterns and send them to the testing- room for final 
adjustment. Small 



pumps, such as 
boiler-feed and tank 



having 



FTG. I7A 




pumps, 

stroke of say 9 
inches and less, re- 
quire a lost motion 
varying from y% to 

Y% of an inch. The usual method of construction of the 
slide-valve and the nut by which it is driven for small pumps 
is shown in Fig. 174. The valve-nut is simply a square 

20 



-':' 



PL3IPIXG MAC 



-~ - - ' JL ~. .' , 



block of iron tapped and screwed on the end of the valve- 
rod as shown. The method of adjustment may be as follows : 
The steam-pistons are to be placed in the centre of the stroke ; 
the cross-heads are to be fastened to the piston-rods midway 
of their stroke ; the levers connected to the rock-shafts so that 
the rocker-arms carrying the pins giving motion to the slide- 
valves are in a vertical line, one rock-shaft pin above the 
centre, and the other below it ; the slide-valves are now to be 
placed on the valve-seats and centred so as to cover all the 
ports ; the valve-nut must now be centred as shown in the 
engraving; that is, there must be an equal amount of lost 
motion on either side between the projections on the valve and 
the nut by which it is to be driven. This adjustment must 
be made in both valves in the manner indicated above, after 
which this detail of the pump is ready for steam. 

Duplex pumps of 10 or 12 inches stroke are usually fitted 



v.-;:h :;. 



■z:'z. tz.i :: :::e v=."_- 



_ : : : - 5 



.- r 






in Fig. 175. 

:e:h : z ::" ai- 
ent is the 
same as described 

:~ zzzt zztztzlr.zr 
z zzzzzzzzz. The 
nuts : r*er a greater 



:-- :._ . •::: \--.z 
z\zt :ztzzz::z. :f 
:e ; :::;r. ar.i i ; :: ; : zz.tzzzzzt^ z.zzztz.s zz.ii zz.t s:zt :f zz.t 
pump needs an amount of lost motion greater or less than 
the other, it can be had quickly and without disconnecting the 
valve-rod from the rock-shaft pin. If care is exercised in 
tightening the nuts after fcheii a jstment, the probability of 
their ever irking ; t is quite remote and rare, ever 



Lost-motion links for pumps of 18 to 24 inches stroke 
are commonly made as shown in Fig. 176. The rock-shaft 

z:r. if z.zztz :: zz.t z::tz z.:'.t :r. zz.t i. : .z:z.g-z'.zz:i. Zz.t link 



THE DUPLEX PUMP. 



231 




- T^T 



K 



to which the sliding-block is fitted has an end motion suited 
to the requirements of the pump with which it is to be used. 

The amount of lost mo- 
tion may vary from y 2 an 
inch to I inch, depending 
somewhat on the design of 
the pump as well as the 
conditions of service. 

When testing a new 
pump at the works with 
such a link, a sliding-block 
much shorter than is likely 
to be needed is sometimes 
used, and then by inserting 
pieces of thin sheet-metal 

into each end of the link opening, w T hile the pump is in oper- 
ation, an accurately determined quantity of lost motion can 
be experimentally secured ; then the new sliding-block in- 
tended for the pump can be made to an exact length by 
simply making it to the combined length of the short block 
and the several thicknesses of sheet-metal used at each end in 
the slot necessary to give the slide-valves their proper travel. 

An adjustable lost-motion link, such as shown in Fig. 177, 
is the kind usually included in the design and construction of 
large pumping engines. The drawing is nearly self-explana- 
tory; the sliding-block 
is made with a shallow 
recess at each end, in 
which are fitted pieces of 
raw hide, against which 
the round heads of the 
adjusting-screws at each end of the link may touch and com- 
municate motion without noise. The screws are easily ad- 
justable even when the pump is in motion. When the proper 
amount of lost motion is had, the jam-nuts firmly fix the 
adjusting-screws in place. This style of lost-motion link 
permits a very wide range of adjustment. 



Fig. 177. 




232 



PUMPING MACHINERY. 



The general features of the valve-gear shown in Fig. 182 
are reproduced in Fig. 178 on a somewhat larger scale, and 
sufficiently sectioned to make the operation more easily un- 
derstood. A is the piston-rod ; B, a cross-head secured to the 
piston-rod ; C, a link connecting the cross-head with the lever 
D ; E } a rock-shaft operated by D, by which is driven the 
rocker-arm F ; G, a lost-motion link by which the valve-rod 
cross-head H is driven ; / is the valve-rod by which the slide- 



Fig. 178. 




valve is moved ; J is an outer bearing for the valve-rod ; K 
is the upper portion of the cross-stand. This description in- 
cludes only one set of valve-gear ; the duplicate set for oper- 
ating the other engine is partly shown, and is in all respects 
the same except one rocker-arm must always be down below 
the centre of the shaft, and the other one must always be 
above it ; that is to say, one valve-rod must always travel with 
the piston by which it is driven, while that of the other engine 
must travel in an opposite direction to that of the piston which 




THE DUPLEX PUMP. 



233 



gives it motion. It will doubtless be understood that the 
piston-rod A and the valve-rod / are not on the same, but are 
on opposite, engines. The lever, the lost-motion link, and the 
valve-rod cross-head, not lettered but shown in the drawing, 
belong to the opposite engine, and were simply included to 
show the relation of each to the other. 



The action of a duplex valve-movement such as just 
described must not be confounded with that of two crank 
pumping engines arranged to work at right angles to each 
other. It is not the same kind of movement, and the two 
methods of propulsion have nothing in common. A velocity 
diagram showing the action of two double-acting pumps with 
cranks at right angles has already been given in a previous 
chapter (see Fig. 141). The flow of water from a duplex 



Fig. 179. 

Jflzam. Vetoci^s 




pump is so entirely different that the illustration, Fig. 179, will 
hardly be recognized as one performing a similar service, but 
as a matter of fact it represents approximately the flow from 
a Worthington pump at each point of the stroke. As soon 
as one pump begins to slow down at the end of the stroke 
the other pump starts, so that by combining the flow it will be 
seen how uniform it is. 

In pumping engines of this type the weight of the moving 
parts is reduced to a minimum, so that the elastic force of the 
steam practically acts upon the water column directly, the 
smoothness of working being well illustrated in the above 
diagram. 

The very great success attending the introduction of the 

duplex pumping engine shows that it well provides the means 

of pumping heavy columns of water with ease and safety to 

20* 



234 PUMPIXG MACHINERY. 

the machinery employed, permitting the application of any 
amount of power required to lift the water column without 
violent or abrupt action upon the water, thus meeting an 
acknowledged demand that the rate of movement of the water 
column through the forcing-main shall be, as nearly as pos- 
sible, uniform, so that no considerable alteration of pressure 
shall be shown at any time while the pump is working. It 
also meets the requirement that the propulsion of the water 
shall be produced by the use of the smallest practicable 
amount of moving material for transmitting the force of the 
steam to the column of water in order to reduce to the lowest 
point the momentum of moving parts, and the hurtful effects 
due thereto in case of derangement of the valves or pipes. 
The time allowed at the end of each stroke before the piston 
takes up its return motion is sufficient to permit the water- 
valves to seat quietly, and to allow the incoming supply to 
completely fill the water-cylinder. 



COMPOUND DIRECT-ACTING STEAM-PUMPS. 235 



CHAPTER XII. 

COMPOUND DIRECT-ACTING STEAM-PUMPS. 

The compounding of direct-acting pumping engines is 
made necessary if the heat wasted by the exhaust from such 
engines is to be turned to a useful account by directly assist- 
ing in the work of the engine. Single-cylinder direct-acting 
pumping engines cannot of themselves, as ordinarily con- 
structed, use steam expansively, because the terminal pressure 
must equal the pump-load, which is, or ought to be, continuous 
throughout the stroke ; no greater steam-pressure is required 
at the beginning than at its termination. The steam-pressure 
is, therefore, the same from end to end of the stroke. Com- 
pound steam-pumps are now made in considerable quantities, 
with cylinders adapted to a range of expansion usually from 
2 to 4 volumes, depending upon the initial steam-pressure, and 
whether they are to be operated non-condensing or condensing. 

The compounding of steam-cylinders for a direct-acting 
pumping engine is a different problem to that of an ordinary 
steam-engine. Practically there is no momentum of moving 
parts to aid in expansion ; there are no fly-wheels or other 
devices for storing up energy in the early part of the stroke to 
be given out at the end. The terminal pressure must be 
sufficiently high to complete the stroke against the water- 
pressure ; the engine is, therefore, working at a disadvantage, 
and the same degree of economy cannot be expected as if it 
were an ordinary engine. 

Gain by Compounding. — Non condensing compound 
steam-ends are effective and economical when from 65 to 100 
pounds boiler-pressure is used ; the gain over the ordinary 
direct- acting cylinders being from 20 to 35 per cent, depend- 



236 PUMPING MACHINERY. 

ing on the initial pressure and the ratio of expansion. Non- 
condensing steam-ends are not recommended for pressures 
below 50 pounds, as there will not be a saving sufficient to 
warrant the additional cost of the machinery. 

Tandem Direct- Acting Compound Steam-End. — The 

high-pressure cylinder is supposed to take its steam directly 
from the boiler and admitted at the same pressure. Practi- 
cally this is seldom the case, and from 5 to 10 pounds less 
than boiler-pressure is the ordinary available pressure. 

It is not a general practice to supply receivers or tanks with 
ordinary compound duplex pumps. The high- and low- 
pressure cylinders are placed tandem to each other, with both 
pistons attached to the same rod, as shown in Fig. 180. The 
exhaust from the high-pressure cylinder passing directly into 
the low-pressure steam-chest, and from thence into the low- 
pressure cylinder. 

The slide-valves of both cylinders have the same movement, 
the ports being of equal dimensions in the direction of valve 
travel. The valves having neither lap nor lead, the steam and 
exhaust are operated at full stroke in both cylinders. The 
pressure of steam in the low-pressure steam-chest will be 
variable, depending on the distance which the pistons have 
travelled towards the end of the stroke. 

In this design the low-pressure cylinder is fitted with tie- 
rods connecting it with the water-end ; a substantial cast-iron 
foot or base under the cylinder affords support for carrying 
the weight of the entire steam-end, as it is not a common 
practice to provide the high-pressure cylinder with any means 
of support other than the end flanges connecting it with the 
intermediate head. For small pumping engines it is the 
practice to have the high- and low-pressure valve-seats in the 
same plane, both valves being driven by the same valve-rod. 
The lost motion may be had in each steam-chest by a proper 
adjustment of the nuts at each end of the valve. The double 
nut shown between the two steam-chests is simply to provide 
a convenient means of connecting or disconnecting the valve- 



COMPOUND DIRECT- ACTING STEAM- PUMPS. 237 

rod, should it be necessary at any time to remove the high- 
pressure cylinder ; it has nothing to do with the valve 
adjustment. 

The valve-rod movement is constant, the variation in valve 
travel being secured by the valve-nuts. The steam- and 
exhaust-ports must be of the same dimensions in the direction 
of valve travel, any difference in area that may be required can 
be had by a proper width of port, as this detail is not affected 
by the valve travel. The steam-ports in pumping engines are 
usually two per cent, of the cylinder area, and in compounding 
these same proportions are used in each cylinder respectively, 
so that the width of the ports will vary for each diameter. 
Dash-relief valves are fitted to the low-pressure cylinders only 
if the engine is to be operated non-condensing, but if con- 
densing, and if the high-pressure cylinder be of a size larger 
than 12 inches diameter, they may be applied to each end 
of each cylinder. These valves are not shown in the drawing, 
but are similar to the one illustrated in Fig. 173. Aside-pipe, 
shown partly in dotted lines and in elevation, connects the 
high-pressure exhaust-cavity with the low-pressure steam- 
chest, each side of a duplex engine having its own side-pipe. 
The steam-pipe shown at the end of the high-pressure steam- 
chest extends across and connects to the two high-pressure 
chests, but there must be no connection between low-pressure 
steam-chests. The exhaust from the low-pressure cylinder 
may lead directly into the air or into a condenser. 

High-Service Attachment. — A compound pump is 
sometimes required to work temporarily against a water- 
pressure which cannot be had by the use of the ordinary 
steam-pressure acting upon the high-pressure piston. Pas- 
senger-elevators in office and public buildings are sometimes 
used to elevate safes and other heavy weights, requiring a 
water-pressure much greater than is employed regularly. 
Small water-works pumping engines delivering into a reser- 
voir, stand-pipe, or in direct system, frequently require that 
the ordinary domestic pressure be doubled for fire-service. 



238 PUMPING MACHINERY. 

These and other reasons make it desirable that a compound 
pump be quickly changed to a high-service non-compound 
when emergencies arise. 

To accomplish this requires nothing more than a direct 
steam connection to the side-pipe (on each side of the pump) 
leading from the exhaust of the high-pressure cylinder into 
the steam-chest of the low-pressure cylinder. This pipe must 
be fitted with a globe-valve for shutting off the high-pressure 
steam when it is not wanted. 

Its action is this : Suppose a non-condensing compound 
pump to be regularly at work and a fire-alarm be sounded ; 
nothing requires to be done except to open the globe-valve 
leading from the main steam-pipe into each exhaust side-pipe ; 
by this act the high-pressure cylinders will be thrown out of 
service, because the exhaust pressure would balance the live- 
steam pressure and no work could be done. The boiler- 
pressure being now transformed directly to the low-pressure 
pistons, which are probably 2 x / 2 times the area of the high- 
pressure cylinder, will so increase the water-pressure that fire- 
hose connections may be made directly to the fire-plugs. 
When the fire or other emergency is over this valve may be 
closed, and the engine goes on with its work as before. 

The intermediate head connecting the high- and low- 
pressure cylinders, as shown in Fig. 180, is one which the 
writer believes to be superior to all others with which he is 
acquainted. A loosely-fitting sleeve, preferably of cast iron, 
is held in place by its flange, and so fitted that it may move 
easily in any radial direction in the recess between the inter- 
mediate casting and the bolted flange back of it. This joint 
should be well made by scraping to a steam-tight surface on 
both sides of the flange, otherwise there will be a steam leak 
between the two cylinders. There may be a reasonable 
allowance, as shown in the clearance lines, for radial move- 
ment of this cast-iron sleeve to allow for any want of original 
alignment ; but as all the work is machine-fitted, there ought 
not to be any considerable deviation from absolute truth. 



COMPOUND DIRECT-ACTING STEAM-PUMPS. 239 




240 PUMPING MACHINERY. 

The high-pressure piston-rod passing through this sleeve will 
in a short time, through such lubrication as the cylinder gets, 
glaze the inside of the sleeve, producing a surface-finish not 
subject to abrasion, and of great hardness combined with a 
high polish. 

For steam-ends having a stroke of 18 to 24 inches the 
high-pressure cylinder is sometimes placed between the low- 
pressure cylinder and the water-end, as shown in Fig. 181. 
The high-pressure cylinder-head is fitted to receive the tie- 
bars, but in other respects the design is substantially the 
same, except that a lost-motion link is included in the valve- 
gear and no lost motion is given the valves in the steam-chests. 

Compound Steam-End for Large Engines. — For 

pumping engines larger than those described, say from 24 to 
48 inches stroke, it is customary to make them with the low- 
pressure cylinder outside, the high-pressure cylinder inside, as 
shown in Fig. 182, but without any intermediate head as pre- 
viously described. In this drawing the usual method of con- 
struction is shown, which is to include the flange for bolting the 
high-pressure cylinder to the low in the same casting with the 
'former, and providing an intermediate cover to the smaller 
cylinder as shown. The high-pressure cylinder-head through 
which the piston-rod passes does not receive the tie-bars as in 
smaller sizes, lugs being included in the cylinder-casting for 
taking the strain of the engine. Steam-ends of this design 
have three piston-rods, one for the high- and two for the low- 
pressure piston, — a detail shown in the half-plan, Fig. 183, in 
which a cross-head is common to the three piston-rods, as 
well as the plunger-rod connection leading into the water- 
end. The low-pressure rods have each a stuffing-box, which 
is located well forward, almost to the high-pressure cylinder- 
head, a pipe connection with flange securing each to the low- 
pressure cylinder. 

An advantage which this design offers over the ones pre- 
viously described is that the high- and low-pressure pistons 
may be removed, if necessary, without disturbing the main 



COMPOUND DIRECT- ACTING STEAM- PUMPS. 2dl 




£4 



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K; 






y, *. 



i 



J 



L q 



<^ 



21 






242 



PUMPING MACHINERY. 






msffi zss&jt 











COMPOUND DIRECT-ACTING STEAM-PUMPS. 243 

3 



portions of the en- 
gine. For small 
engines, the re- 
moval of the high- 
pressure cylinder 
and intermediate 
head is not much 
of an undertaking, 
but for large water- 
works engines it 
would be a serious 
matter, which the 
present design 
makes wholly un- 
necessary. The 
valve motion as 
shown in this en- 
graving has been 
previously illus- 
trated and de- 
scribed. (See Fig. 

178.) 

The cross-head 
for large engines is 
usually made of 
forged open-hearth 
steel; for the small- 
er sizes a good qual- 
ity of steel casting 
has been found to 
answer the pur- 
pose, but cast iron 
is seldom, if ever, 
used. The rods 
should be of a 
good quality of 
mild steel ; the 







3 



00 



244 



PLMPIXG MACHINERY. 



I 







n 



_a 



s 





COMPOUND DIRECT-ACTING STEAM-PUMPS. 245 

writer has used cold-rolled steel in such engines with excellent 
satisfaction. 

Intermediate Head with Stuffing-Boxes. — A com- 
pound steam-end with an intermediate head furnished with 
stuffing-boxes is shown in Fig 184. It does not often occur 
that such a head must be used to the exclusion of the one 
previously described, but it has this one advantage, that any 
leakage around the rod may be detected and remedied by the 
adjustment of, or the insertion of, new packing. Any one of 
the several metallic piston-rod packings now offered to the 
trade may be used in these stuffing-boxes in lieu of the fibrous 
packing if desired. 

Intermediate Head with Protected Rod. — A combi- 
nation of a cast-iron sleeve with that of a stuffing-box is shown 
in the sketch, 



wwwww ^s 



sVS W s SSW KS 



Fig. 185. 
Fig. 185. This 

is simply a pre- 
liminary sketch 
by the writer, 
never having 
been used by 
him, nor is he 
sure whether or 
not it may in- 
terfere with an- 
other's secured 
rights. The in- 
tent is to protect the high-pressure rod from contact with the 
atmosphere, by the use of a long sleeve, as well as to prevent 
leakage from one cylinder to another by means of the stuffing- 
box and gland shown in the low-pressure head. 



k\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\ \^ 




^\\\^ Wft 



Action of Steam in Compound Direct- Acting En- 
gines. — Let the upper part of Fig. 186 represent one side of a 
tandem compound duplex pumping engine, but in the consid- 

21* 



246 



PUMPING MACHINERY. 



eration of the subject it is not necessary to take the duplex 
feature into account, for the two engines are entirely separate 
except in the single feature of valve-movement for the dis- 
tribution of steam, therefore whatever remarks apply to one 



\ 



Fig. 186. 



1 1 ' 1 ' ' ' 



IO<?81b543ZlO 




*= 



a c d e jjj h ' fc. 'J, 



J Out \ „_ 

lYOlUMt.) 



( THRU "\ 
"•\YO).UMlS./" 



9^ 



60- 



w- 

3fr- 






^. 



/<5 



/8 



A 






•>%-.<i 



Jttrn o sjA er£ c XtTrc . 



— * 



engine apply equally well to the other. The lower diagram 
is drawn for 90 pounds absolute pressure; the low-pressure 
cylinder has an area three times greater than that of the high; 
both pistons are connected to the same rod, therefore the 
same length of stroke. This diagram illustrates the action of 
the steam between the high-pressure piston and that of the 
low for each one-tenth of one stroke. For convenience we 
have lengthened the low-pressure cylinder diagram corre- 
sponding to three volumes, and we may further suppose the 
high-pressure cylinder to have a cubic capacity of one foot, or 
any other volume, real or assumed. The left-hand side of the 
diagram represents the action of the steam in the high-press- 
ure cylinder, and the right-hand side that of the low. The 
exact detail of these two cylinders may be the same as the 
sectional elevation, Fig. 180. No receiver is employed in this 
engine, but the volume of ports, pipe, and low-pressure steam- 



COMPOUND DIRECT-ACTING STEAM-PUMPS. 247 

chest is taken to be 50 per cent, of the high-pressure cylinder, 
the exhaust from the high-pressure cylinder being led directly 
into the low-pressure steam-chest as shown in the drawing. 
The engine is represented as non-condensing in the diagram, 
but as all pressures are reckoned from a vacuum, a slight 
change in the diagram will make it apply equally well to con- 
densing-engines. 

When steam is admitted at A the pressure immediately 
rises to B, 90 pounds above vacuum, the piston begins its for- 
ward movement, and will continue to the end of the stroke at 
C; the inner edge of the high-pressure piston is marked 10, 
and the inner edge of the low-pressure piston is marked o; 
when, therefore, the one piston has travelled to 9, the other is 
at a ; but before considering the expansion curve in the dia- 
gram it is necessary to take account of the clearance space 
between the two cylinders. In engines of this type the steam 
is exhausted from the high-pressure cylinder at the same 
pressure used in doing its work, which we have placed at 90 
pounds in the diagram. The clearance volume in the ports, 
side-pipe, and low-pressure steam-chest has been assumed to 
be 50 per cent, of the high-pressure cylinder. If this space 
were empty the initial pressure for the low-pressure piston 
would be : one volume of steam at 90 pounds expanded into 
I y 2 volumes = 60 pounds ; but there was remaining in this 
space from the last stroke a volume of steam having a tension 
equal to the terminal pressure upon the low-pressure piston 
at the completion of its stroke, say 24 pounds ; this must be 
taken into account, so that the pressure in the low-pressure 
chest would be increased thus : 

I vol. at 90 pounds = 90 pounds from the H. P. cylinder. 
Y^ vol. at 24 " = 12 " terminal pressure in L. P. cylinder. 

1.5 volumes ) 102 ( 68 pounds. 

This 68 pounds becomes, then, the initial pressure for the 
low-pressure cylinder, as it is also a back pressure against the 
high-pressure piston. This reduction of pressure occurs at 
the moment of reversal of the slide-valve in the high-pressure 



-4? PUMPING MACHINERY. 

steam-chest, and at a time when the reversal of piston- is 
about to occur, but the movement is not vet beo-un. 

Returning- now to the consideration of the diagram, Fig. 
1 86, when the high-pressure piston is at g, and that of the 
low is at a, a reduction of pressure is shown, and it is that 
due to the expanded volume of steam, or difference between a 
contraction of one-tenth of the high-pressure cylinder volume 
and the enlargement by three-tenths in the low-pressure 
cylinder volume. When the pistons reach 8 and b respec- 
tively we have the difference between a contraction of two- 
tenths in the high-pressure cylinder and an enlargement of 
s :-tenths in the low, which reduces the pressure to b, and in 
like manner for other pressures 

It will be a near enough approximation, if we consider the 
back-pressure line of the high-pressure cylinder, to follow the 
same curve as the expansion in the low-pressure cylinder, but 
a slight variation occurs in practice, due to the resistance of 
the steam flowing through the passages between the two 
cylinders. The effect of the clearance space between the two 
cylinders is shown first in the fall of pressure at c, in Fig. 
l86, at "which point the highest pressure in the low-pressure 
cylinder is had and the greatest back pressure in the high- 
pressure cylinder. The total effect bein; := enable in the 
difference between the extremes of the curved line terminating 
at o. 

The exhaust side of the high-pressure cylinder and the 
pressure side of the low-pressure cylinder are always in direct 
communication; the pressure must, therefore, be the same in 
both cylinders. The left-hand diagram shows the back press- 
ure in the high-pressure cylinder until o is reached, a similar 
line is traced in the right-hand diagram until k is reached, 
and the low-pressure exhaust-valve opened to the atmosphere, 
causing an immediate drop in the pressure to the back- 
pressure line, which is drawn at 1 8 pounds, or about three 
pounds above the atmosphere. The high-pressure cylinder 
not being in communication with the atmosphere, its terminal 
pressure is never below that in the low-pressure ^ream-chest, 



COMPOUND DIRECT-ACTING STEAM- PUMPS. 249 

a pressure we have estimated to be 24 pounds. The pistons 
having reached the end of the stroke, the slide-valves moved 
to the opposite throw, the operation of the engine is now 
reversed, and as its action is precisely similar to that just 
described, no further comment is necessary. This tracing 
of the valve movement of a single pair of compound cylinders 
is equally applicable to the duplex valve movement, because 
such steam- cylinders work independently of each other. 



Ratios of High- and Low-Pressure Cylinders. — Table 
XIII. gives the actual dimensions for the several ratios of 
compounding, but in practice these figures are seldom adhered 



TABLE XIII. 

SHOWING THE RATIOS OF HIGH- AND LOW-PRESSURE STEAM-CYLINDERS. 

The areas are calculated, and opposite each is the corresponding diameter to the 

nearest % inch. 













Low-Pressure Cylinders. 








High- 


















Pressure 
Cylinders. 


















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84.9 


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113. 1 


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38.5 


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134.8 


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41/8 + 


1330.4 


44 


1520.5 


2 3 


4I5.5 


32^ + 


831.0 


36%- 


1038.8 


39%- 


1246.5 


43 + 


!454-3 


46 


1661 9 


24 


452.4 


33% + 


904.8 


38 - 


1131.0 


41^8— 


I357- 2 


44% + 


1583-4 


48 


1809.6 



250 



PUMPING MACHINERY. 



to, as fractional parts of an inch are always avoided in steam- 
cylinders if whole numbers can be used instead ; for example, 
if a high-pressure cylinder 16 inches in diameter be selected 
for a given pumping engine, and a ratio of expansion of 3 to 
1 was desired, the table gives 27^ inches as a suitable 
diameter ; the probability is that 28 inches would be selected 
instead, but the general tendency is towards smaller ratios of 
expansion. The ordinary or trade sizes of compound steam- 
ends for engines of 10 to 18 inches stroke are given in Table 
XIV. 

TABLE XIV. 

COMMERCIAL SIZES FOR COMPOUND STEAM-ENDS, OR THOSE ORDINARILY 
FURNISHED DUPLEX PUMPS FROM IO TO 1 8 INCHES STROKE. 



Diameters. 


Areas. 


Ratio of 










Expansion. 


High Pressure. 


Low Pressure. 


High Pressure. 


Low Pressure. 




6 


IO 


28.3 


78.5 


2.78 


7 


12 


38-5 


I.I3.I 


2.94 


8 


12 


50-3 


II3.I 


2.25 


9 


14 


63.6 


153-9 


2.42 


IO 


16 


78.5 


20I.0 


2.56 


12 


18 


II3.I 


254-5 


2.25 


14 


20 


153-9 


3H-2 


2.04 


16 


24 


201.0 


452.4 


2.25 


18 


30 


254-5 


706.9 


2.77 



A noticeable feature in this table is the comparatively low 
ratio of expansion, but it should be borne in mind that these 
are nearly all small sizes, and are used at pressures rarely 
exceeding 75 pounds boiler-pressure, and often not more than 
60 pounds ; the last three or four sizes being, in general, the 
only ones fitted with condensing apparatus. 



COMPOUND DIRECT-ACTING STEAM-PUMPS. 25 I 
TABLE XV. 

EXAMPLES OF COMPOUND DUPLEX ENGINE PERFORMANCE. 





Water-Pressure. 


Steam- 
Pressure. 


U 
Bj 

t/) 
in 
H 
H 

Cm 


Size of 


Pipes. 


H 
M 
H 






At Speed in 














z 


Size of Engine. 




Strokes per 
Minute. 




i) 


u 


U 

< 


Water. 


Steam. 


Q 




m 









c 


PQ 

H 

3 








H 




U 

u 




u 










(/1 


W 




48 


3 

(/> 
01 
V 

u 

PL, 

5° 


O 

a 
to 

106 


3 
1/1 

</) 

V 
In 

Ph 
52 


-0 
u 
u 

a 

200 


u 
J) 

'0 
PQ 

60 


Ph' 

56 


Ph' 
14 


X 
X 

W 


_o 

3 
en 


> 

Q 


g 
u 
C/5 


3 

X 

W 


H 

H 
C/3 


8 and 12 X 7 X 10 . . 


2 


6 


.5 


2 


4 


III 


8 and 12 X 7 X 10 . . 


60 


60 


100 


72 


200 


55 


50 


13 


2 


5 


5 


2 


3 


138 


8 and 12 X 8 X 10 . . 


38 


52 


1. So 


57 


180 


70 


63 


18 


3 


6 


3 1 /, 


2 


2 


88 


8 and 12 X 8^ X 10 . 


29 


37 


160 






6s 


53 


13 





6 


4 


2 


2'/ 2 


67 


io and 16 X 10^ X 10 


36 


44 


160 


47 


200 


72 


60 


17 


1 


6 


.5 


2 


3 


83 


10 and 16 X xo V\ X 10 


52 


52 


no 


56 


160 


60 


57 


15 


1 


7 


7 


2 


4 


120 


12 and 18^ X 12 X 10 


52 


54 


100 


57 


180 


70 


60 


i.S 


3 1 /* 


7 


6 


2 


3 


120 


12 and 18% X 12 X 10 


62 


6s 


100 


70 


160 


60 


ss 


1.5 


3 


7 


6 


2 


3 


J 43 


18^4 and 29 X 1 ^ X 18 


68 


75 


60 


80 


02 


75 


47 








14 


12 


4 


Q 


157 


21 and 36% X (>Y 2 X 36 


200 


n^5 


60 






100 


94 


25 


3 


6 


4 


5 


8 


462 



The last pump tabulated was performing the very unusual 
service of pumping through a delivery 24 miles long. 

The others represent fair average performance of compound 
duplex non-condensing pumping engines. 

Steam-Jackets. — It is not a common practice to jacket 
the smaller sizes of steam-cylinders, whether in single or 
duplex pumping engines ; that is to say, for sizes smaller than 
18- and 30-inch compound. It is not believed, for the smaller 
sizes at least, that the future saving will repay the original 
cost ; but if a partial jacketing be thought desirable, it should 
be the low-pressure cylinders rather than the high. If the 
high-pressure cylinder only is jacketed, the exhaust from it 
into the low-pressure cylinder suffers by excessive condensa- 
tion because of its lower temperature ; but if the latter cylinder 
is jacketed, this condensation is less in quantity, and in so far 
a step towards more economical working. 

The usual practice is to jacket the barrel of the cylinder 
only ; the heads are seldom jacketed except in very large 
engines. A steam-jacket must be designed with reference to 
proper circulation and drainage, otherwise it may prove 



252 PUMPING MACHINERY. 

worthless, and defeat the very end to which it was applied. 
The steam used in the jacket should be at full boiler-pressure, 
and provision made for returning any water of condensation 
back to the boiler. 

The degree of expansion in ordinary pumping engines is 
not sufficiently great to require the many refinements which 
are thought to be necessary in the case of large engines 
where high pressures are employed and expaasion carried to 
the extreme limit ; in the latter engines jackets are always 
employed. 

The actual value of the steam-jacket, first applied by Watt, 
has always been called in question. Tredgold, the earliest 
writer on the steam-engine, condemned it, but it steadily grew 
into favor with engineers, and it is now the general belief that 
expansive engines cannot work to any good purpose without 
one. A few years ago it was thought that its application 
effected a saving from 10 to 30 per cent, but the lowest of 
these two figures is not now believed to be possible even 
under the best conditions. 

The best series of experiments undertaken up to this time 
to determine the exact truth in relation to steam-jackets were 
those undertaken and conducted by Professor J. E. Denton 
in 1889, the high-duty Corliss engine of the Pawtucket water- 
works having been placed at his disposal. 

The details of this engine are tolerably well known, but it 
may be well to repeat that it is a horizontal cross compound 
engine, steam-cylinders 15 and 30^ inches bore; water- 
cylinders, 10.52 inches; stroke of ail pistons, 30 inches; 
clearance, high-pressure cylinder, 4 per cent. ; low, 3.7 per 
cent. Diameter of rods, 2^ inches. Ratio of volumes of 
cylinders, 4.085. Average cut-off in high-pressure cylinders, 
one-fourth, and in low, one-third. Jackets envelop the barrels 
but not the heads of both cylinders, and steam of full boiler- 
pressure is used in each. The heads are not jacketed, but 
contain passages leading to and from the ports. The condensed 
steam from the jackets is pumped into the feed-pipe at a point 
between the boiler and hot-well. 



COMPOUND DIRECT-ACTING STEAM-PUMPS. 253 

The experiments were conducted along the lines of every- 
day usage and service, and have an especial value for this 
reason. The influence of the steam-jackets on the Pawtucket 
pumping engine form the subject of an elaborate and con- 
vincing paper by Professor Denton, published in Vol. XL, 
" Transactions of the American Society of Mechanical En- 
gineers." The conclusions reached by him are as follows : 

1. That the averages of results of indicator-cards, taken in 
the most careful manner with the best modern indicators, 
show a possible saving from the use of jackets amounting to 
from 0.13 to 0.35 pound of steam per hour per horse-power, 
but that these amounts are within the limit of error to which 
the determination of indicated horse-power and cut-offs are 
subjected, so that 

2. The most that can be claimed for the jacket is that it 
probably caused no loss, and may possibly cause a saving not 
exceeding 3 per cent, of the total steam consumption. 

Lagging steam-cylinders with wood or other, non-con- 
ducting material in lieu of jackets is very common. This does 
not, of course, take the place of a steam-jacket, nor is it the 
intention to arrest cylinder condensation by its application ; its 
only function is to prevent as far as practicable external radia- 
tion from the steam-cylinder. The best non-conductors of 
heat are hair felt, cork, fossil meal, magnesia, charcoal, and 
rice chaff. A cylinder clothed with hair felt, and afterwards 
covered with reeded black walnut staves held in place by a 
polished brass band about two inches wide at each end of the 
cylinder, makes a good and at the same time a very neat finish 
for a steam-end. 

Circular slide-valves are sometimes used, as shown in 
Fig. 187. The arrangement of the ports and of the valve 
does not essentially differ from that of the ordinary duplex 
steam-cylinder, except in the matter of change of form of the 
valve and its seat from flat to circular. The necessary lost 
motion for the slide-valves is secured by the employment of 

22 



254 



PUMPING MACHINERY. 



adjustable lost-motion links at the rocker-arms; the method 
of operating the valve within the steam-chest being similar to 
that of a Corliss steam-valve makes it inconvenient to have 
any lost motion there. The centring of the two valves is 
secured through the use of a right- and left-hand nut attached 
to the valve connecting-rod, by which it may be lengthened 
or shortened to get any suitable distance from centre to centre. 



Fig. 187. 




HE 



This nut is shown between the two cylinders. It is not neces- 
sary that the two valve-seats be bored to the same diameter, 
but care must be exercised in designing that the valve-move- 
ments be precisely alike in the matter of admission and port 
closure : this is easily secured by making the high-pressure 
ports shorter, or by so proportioning the high-pressure 
valve-lever that the two valves shall open and close exactly 
alike. 



A tank-engine is a duplex pumping engine in which there 
is one high-pressure cylinder and one low-pressure cylinder 
placed side by side as in the construction of an ordinary 



COMPOUND DIRECT-ACTING STEAM-PUMPS. 255 

duplex pump, with a large receiver or tank, into which the 
high-pressure cylinder exhausts, and from which the low- 
pressure cylinder draws its supply. This type of engine 
probably originated with Ernest Wolff,* who patented it in 
England in 1834. The essential features of his patent were 
thus described by him : 

"The invention consists of the combination of two or more 
engines, each complete in all its parts, and so disposed that 
while the first receives steam at one, two, or more atmos- 
pheres of pressure, the next engine is moved by the steam 
that escapes from the first. In the last engine the steam is 
condensed in the ordinary way, or escapes in the atmos- 
phere. The work supplied by the several engines is applied 
to the same shaft, or to several combined, or to independent 
shafts. 

" It is sometimes useful to have between the cylinders an 
intermediate reservoir to regulate the pressure; this may be 
placed with advantage at the base of the chimney, so as to 
maintain or raise the temperature and the pressure of the 
steam in its passage from one cylinder to the other. Indeed, 
if necessary, the heat may be supplied by a special fire-box. 

" It is often necessary to employ a special pipe with a stop- 
cock to admit the steam from the boiler to an intermediate 
reservoir in order to give the machine the power of starting 
any crank. This direct introduction may be employed to 
increase for a time the power of the engine.'' 

Certain modifications of this engine were patented by 
Worthington in 1 871, and engines for situations favorable to 
its use have been built from time to time, but its introduction 
has not been general. In these engines a large receiver or 
tank is a necessity, not less than say ten times the volume of 
the high-pressure cylinder ; it is from this tank that the low- 
pressure cylinder draws its supply as if from a steam-boiler. 
This large tank is necessary that the contribution of the high- 



* This invention must not be confounded with another engine patented in 1804 
by Woolf. Notice the difference in spelling. 



256 PUMPING MACHINERY. 

pressure cylinder to its contents, or the withdrawal of steam 
from it by the low-pressure cylinder, is not sufficient to vary 
its pressure in any considerable or troublesome degree. The 
condensing apparatus is attached, of course, only to the low- 
pressure cylinder. A careful consideration of the working 
conditions under which this engine is found will show that it 
must be accurately proportioned as well to its work as to the 
proposed pressure of steam, in order to secure anything like 
an equal division of the resistance between the two pistons. 
And it is necessary to do this with some reasonable degree 
of exactness, as upon it depend that uniformity of water-flow 
and stability of pressure which give to this engine its advan- 
tages as an hydraulic motor. Economically this engine holds 
about the same position as the four-cylinder engine, and costs 
somewhat less. It is not, however, universally applicable, and 
is not likely ever to supersede the present types of duplex, 
either ordinary or compound. 

Power of Compound Pumping Engines. — The paper 
on the " Power of Compound Pumping Engines," by John W. 
Hill, in Engineering News, vol. xxi., is laid under contribution 
for the subjoined tables and formulas. 

Table XVI. contains the general data for the steam-ends 
of four proportions or classes of compound, duplex, direct- 
acting pumping engines ; thus, — 

Class A embraces engines where the diameter of the low- 
pressure piston is 1.5 times the diameter of the high-pressure 
piston, as 8 and 12, 12 and 18, 16 and 24, etc. 

Class B embraces engines where the diameter of the low- 
pressure piston is 1.6 times the diameter of the high-pressure 
piston, as 10 and 16, 15 and 24, etc. 

Class C embraces engines where the diameter of the low- 
pressure piston is 1.57 times the diameter of the high-pressure 
piston, as 14 and 22, 21 and 33, etc. 

Class D embraces engines where the diameter of the low- 
pressure piston is two times the diameter of the high-pressure 
piston, as 12 and 24, 16 and 32, 18 and 36, etc. 



COMPOUND DIRECT-ACTING STEAM-PUMPS. 2$7 

The table contains the piston displacements, clearances, and 
expansions, based upon volume (i) and expansion (i)in high- 
pressure cylinders, the hyperbolic logarithms for the effective 
expansions, and the reciprocals of total expansion. 



TABLE XVI. 

COMPOUND DUPLEX DIRECT-ACTING ENGINES. 

Cylinder Volumes and Clearances stated in Terms of High-Pressure Cylinders and 
Steam Full-Stroke, High-Pressure Cylinders. 



Terms. 



Diameter C. P. cylinder (H. P. = i.oo) . 
High-pressure cylinder, area 

" " clearance . . . . 

Intermediate space 

Low-pressure cylinder, area 

" " clearance . . . . 

Expansion, high-pressure cylinder .... 

" intermediate space . . . „ . 

Expansion, low-pressure cylinder .... 

Total expansion , 

Effective " 

Hyperbolic Logarithm 

Reciprocal total expansion 





Class 01 


• Engine. 


A. 


B. 


c. 


1-5 


1.6 


i-57 


1. 000 


1. 000 


i. 000 


0.0630 


0.0630 


0.0630 


0.3388 


0.3388 


0.3388 


2.2500 


2.5600 


2.4700 


0.1125 


0.1280 


01235 


1. 0000 


1. 000 


1 0000 


1.3190 


I-439 1 


T-4350 


1.8254 


2.0200 


1 9640 


2.6000 


2 9067 


2.8182 


1.8254 


2.0200 


1.9640 


0.6018 


0.7031 


0.6750 


0.3846 


0.3440 


o.3548 



D. 



2.0 

1. 000 

0.0600 

1. 1200 

4.0000 

0.2040 

1. 0000 

2.2500 

2.2584 

5.0814 

2.2584 

0.8146 

o 1968 



Table XVII. is calculated for compound duplex direct- 
acting pumping engines, when worked condensing, and gives 
for each of the four classes the mean effective pressure reduced 
to work of low-pressure piston for the absolute pressure of 
column 1 ; for example : 

The steam-end of a compound duplex direct-acting con- 
densing engine has cylinders 16 and 24 inches diameter, and 
the steanvpressure is 70 pounds. What size or diameter of 
pump will this work against a pressure or head of 80 pounds 
(184.64 feet)? 

The data will be found in Class A. 



22^ 



258 



PUMPING MACHINERY. 



TABLE XVII. 

MEAN EFFECTIVE PRESSURES, ENGINE WORKED CONDENSING. 

Compound Duplex Direct- Acting Pumping Engines ; Steam Full-Stroke, High- 
Pressure Cylinders; Counter- Pressure, 3.5 Pounds Absolute. 





Class of Engine. 




A. 


B. 


C. 


D. 


Initial 
Pressure 
Absolute. 




















Constants. 






72869 


O.68252 


0.69542 


0.465S7 


65 


43.864 


40.864 


41.702 


26.781 


70 


47.508 


44-277 


45-679 


29. in 


75 


5I-I52 


47.6S9 


48.656 


3 I -440 


80 


54-795 


51.102 


52.133 


33-769 


85 


58.438 


54.515 


55.611 


36.098 


90 


62.082 


57-927 


59-o88 


38.428 


95 


62.725 


61.340 


62.565 


40.659 


100 


69.369 


64-753 


66.042 


43.087 


105 


73.012 


68.165 


69-5I9 


45.418 


no 


76.656 


71-578 


72.996 


47-746 


ii5 


80.299 


74.990 


76.473 


50.077 


120 


83-943 


78.403 


79950 


52-407 


125 


87.586 


81.816 


83-427 


54-736 


130 


91.229 


85.228 


86.904 


57-o63 


135 


94-873 


S8.641 


90.382 


59-392 



The area of the low-pressure piston (24 inches diameter) 
is 452.39 square inches, and mean effective pressure for abso- 
lute pressure of 85 pounds (70 by gauge) is 58.438, and 
moment of water-load — 

452-39 X 58.438 X -85 = 22471.24 pounds. 

The head is 80 pounds, and area of plunger which a steam- 
end containing high-pressure piston 16 inches diameter, and 
low-pressure piston 24 inches diameter, with steam-pressure 
of 70 pounds, will drive — 

4' • 4 — 280.89 square inches, 

corresponding to a diameter of 19 inches nearly. Two such 
pumps, double-acting, will deliver at 100 feet piston-speed per 
minute 4,034,309.9 gallons per day of 24 hours. 




COMPOUND DIRECT- ACTING STEAM- PUMPS. 259 

Table XVIII. contains the mean effective pressures for 
compound duplex direct-acting pumping engines worked 
non-condensing. 

TABLE XVIII. 

MEAN EFFECTIVE PRESSURES, ENGINE WORKED NON-CONDENSING. 

Compound Duplex Direct-Acting Pumping Engines; Steam Full-Stroke, High- 
Pressure Cylinders; Counter- Pressure, 17 Pounds Absolute. 







Class of 


Engine. 






A. 


B. 


c. 


D. 


Initial 










Pressure 








Absolute. 




Constants. 






0.72869 


O.68252 


0.69542 


0.46587 


65 


30-3 6 4 


27.364 


28.202 


13.281 


70 


34.008 


30.777 


31.679 


15.611 


75 


37-652 


34.189 


35-156 


17.946 


80 


4I-295 


37.602 


3^33 


20.269 


85 


44.938 


4LOI5 


42. in 


22-599 


90 


48.582 


44.427 


45-588 


24.925 


95 


52.225 


47-840 


49.065 


27-I59 


100 


55-869 


51-253 


52.542 


29.587 


105 


59-512 


54-665 


56.019 


3I-978 


no 


63-156 


57-078 


59.496 


34.246 


115 


66.799 


61.490 


62.973 


36.577 


120 


70.443 


64.903 


66.450 


38.907 


125 


74.086 


68.316 


69.927 


41.236 


130 


77.729 


71.728 


73404 


43563 


135 


81-373 


75-141 


76.881 


45.892 



Tangyes's Compound Pump. — The Floyd and Morton 
direct-acting pumping engine, owned by Tangyes, Soho, Eng- 
land, is illustrated in sectional elevation in Fig. 188, which is 
a reproduction of the drawing attached to their American 
patent, and is thus described by, them : 

" The high-pressure steam-cylinder and its appliances may 
be of any ordinary construction suited for the application of this 
invention, — such, for instance, as that used in the pump known 
as ' Tangyes's Special Pump/ — and we will describe, with ref- 
erence to the accompanying drawing (which is a longitudinal 



z6o 



Pl'MPIXG MACHIXERY 



vertical section), the application of the invention to a pump 
of that kind, from which its application to pumps of other 
descriptions will also be understood. 






'J 

— 




" A is the high-pressure cylinder and B is the low-pressure 
cylinder. The slide-valve C of the low-pressure cylinder B is 
not mechanically connected with, but is independent of, the 
valve of the high-pressure cylinder, and is operated by a 



COMPOUND DIRECT-ACTING STEAM-PUMPS. 261 

piston, D, working in an auxiliary steam-cylinder, E, prefer- 
ably in line with the valve C of the said low-pressure cylinder 
B y which may receive its steam from the high-pressure cylin- 
der in the usual or any convenient way. The ends of the said 
auxiliary steam-cylinder E are connected by means of pipes, F 
and G, or equivalent steam-ways to the steam-ports or ends of 
the high-pressure steam-cylinder A, as shown. The slide-valve 
C in the steam-chest of the low-pressure steam-cylinder B 
may be of the D or other type, and the said slide-valve is 
fitted with piston-valves, H H, the pistons of which work in 
short cylinders, J J, at opposite ends of the steam-chest, and 
the piston D is connected to one of the said piston-valves, H y 
by the rod d. 

" In the arrangement illustrated we use the piston-valves H H 
in the steam-chest of the low-pressure cylinder B for control- 
ling the motion of the piston D of the auxiliary cylinder E in 
the following manner : Each end of the steam-chest where 
the pistons H H of the slide-valve C work is provided with an 
auxiliary port, K y which auxiliary ports connect the ends of 
the steam-chest J J in which the slide-valve pistons i/i/work 
with the interior of the steam-chest in which the slide-valve 
C works. The auxiliary ports K K described may be capable 
of being opened and closed and regulated by means of screwed 
plugs or valves, L L. By means of the said auxiliary ports 
K K in the steam-chest the space between the back of each 
of the piston-valves H H of the slide-valve C and the end of 
the steam-chest J J in which it works is charged with steam, 
and when the piston D of the auxiliary cylinder E is moved 
by the steam entering its cylinder by the pipes EG, or steam- 
ways in connection with the high-pressure cylinder A, the 
steam is compressed in one or the other of the spaces J J at 
the ends of the low-pressure steam-chest, so as thereby to 
cushion the slide-valve piston and retard the motion of the 
auxiliary piston D. By these means the main pistons in the 
high- and low-pressure cylinders A and B are caused to make 
a pause at the ends of their strokes, thereby permitting the 
pump-valves to seat themselves quietly on their seats. 



262 PUMPING MACHINERY. 

" We do not limit ourselves to this arrangement for control- 
ling or retarding the action of the auxiliary piston D, as in 
place thereof an oil-, water-, or air-cylinder may be used, the 
displacement of the oil, water, or air in the said cylinder by 
the motion of the piston effecting the retardation of the slide- 
valve C, as hereinbefore described ; or the retardation of the 
motion of the low-pressure slide-valve C may be effected by 
regulating the supply of steam to the auxiliary cylinder by 
placing stop-valves, MM, in the pipes FG, by which the said 
auxiliary cylinder E is connected with the steam-ports or ends 
of the high-pressure steam-cylinder. 

" In a compound pump or pumping engine with more than 
two cylinders the low-pressure cylinder aforesaid would be- 
come an intermediate cylinder having its valve actuated by 
steam, as described, and the slide-valve of the third cylinder 
would be connected with the ports or ends of the interme- 
diate cylinder and be operated by steam, as described, with 
respect to the low-pressure cylinder of a two-cylinder com- 
pound pumping engine. In the same manner the invention 
may be applied to a fourth cylinder, if desired." 

Compound Direct-Acting Engine 'with Isochronal 
Valve-Gear. — The isochronal valve-gear by the Gordon 
Steam-Pump Company, illustrated in Fig. 1 68, is further 
shown in its adaptation to a compound engine in Fig. 189. 
The working of the valve-gear in the compound engine is in 
no respect different to that already described, excepting, of 
course, in that due to its different application. 

In this design the condenser and air-pump are placed in a 
pit between the steam and water-ends. The necessary motion 
for operating the air-pumps is obtained through a vibrating 
beam receiving its motion from a suitable cross-head attached 
to the main piston-rod ; brackets are bolted to the under side 
of the girders joining the steam- and water-ends, in which are 
included the bearings for the vibrating-shaft. From this same 
vibrating-shaft motion is given the sliding-cylinder by means 
of connecting-rods, the centres of which are indicated by 




3 

a 



CO 

<0 



264 PUMPING MACHINERY. 

dotted lines ; the movement of the sliding-cylinder and its 
influence upon the auxiliary cylinder is the same as described 
on page 218. 

The illustration, Fig. 189, represents a single compound 
engine, but this valve-gear permits the placing of two engines 
side by side, and so arranged that they may work together as 
a pair, or independently as single engines, if necessary. 

The folding plate, Fig. 190, gives an illustration of a pair 
of the same machines arranged to work independent of each 
other as independent isochronal engines, and also provided 
with duplex gear, by which they can, at will, be run as a com- 
pound duplex engine. In this construction all of the ad- 
vantages of the varying systems are combined, and while the 
machine maybe run as a duplex machine it is also capable of 
running independently, so as to permit one side to do its work 
while the other side is at rest or undergoing repairs. 

Davidson Direct-Acting Triple-Expansion Pumping 
Engine. — This is a horizontal direct-acting steam-pump, with 
the three steam-cylinders in line with the water-cylinder. Fig. 
191 is an elevation and plan of the engine. The intermediate 
cylinder is placed nearest the water-cylinder, and then come 
the low-pressure and the high-pressure cylinders. Steam is 
led by pipes from each cylinder to the next. The valves for 
the high-pressure and the low-pressure cylinders are plain 
slide-valves, worked by direct connections with the main valve 
on the intermediate cylinder, which is similar in design to the 
valve used by Mr. Davidson on compound and single-cylinder 
pumps. (See Fig. 164) 

With a view to saving space, the intermediate and the low- 
pressure cylinders are set close together, the rear end of the 
first forming the head of the second. This made it impossible 
to use a central piston-rod between these cylinders, there being 
no room for a stuffing-box. The low-pressure piston, there- 
fore, has two piston-rods, which pass outside the intermediate 
cylinder, but underneath its lagging, and are connected to a 
cross-head fastened to the main piston-rod. The stuffing-boxes 




I 



COMPOUND DIRECT-ACTING STEAM-PUMPS. 265 




M 



23 



266 PUMPING MACHINERY. 

for these rods are placed on the end of the intermediate cyl- 
inder farthest from the low-pressure cylinder, and the rods work 
through brass bushings, thus making it as easy to care for 
these stuffing-boxes as for those in the ordinary position. To 
facilitate starting the engine, a by-pass leads from the main 
steam-pipe to the pipe connecting the high-pressure and inter- 
mediate cylinders, by which both these cylinders can be worked 
with live steam until the engine is under way. 

A sectional elevation of the steam-end is shown in Fig. 192. 
The valve-cylinder attached to cylinder A is 12 inches in 
diameter, giving a large area for wear, and steam-ports of 
ample size. The area of the valve-piston is 113 square inches, 
so that the steam-pressure furnishes ample force to work the 
valves of the three cylinders. 

The low-pressure cylinder and steam-chest are shown at B. 
The steam-ports are i 1 /^ by 14 inches. The high-pressure 
cylinder, shown at C, has its left head cast in one piece with 
the right head of the low-pressure cylinder, and the pistons 
of the two cylinders are connected by a central piston-rod. 
The steam-ports for this cylinder are y 2 by 5 ^ inches. 

The steam-cylinders are 1 1 x / 2 inches, 20 inches, and 36 
inches diameter, with a common stroke of 36 inches. They 
are made of hard cast iron and jacketed with live steam, the 
condensation being returned to the boiler by a small inde- 
pendent pump. Steam-pistons are in one piece, with packing- 
rings sprung in, and re-enforced by brass springs pressing 
outwards. The cylinders are covered with approved non- 
conductor, handsomely lagged with walnut strips, held in 
place by finished brass bands. 

The water-cylinder is of cast iron, 36 inches diameter by 
36 inches stroke, with removable lining of hard cast brass 
and brass valve-seats, guards, and springs. It is arranged for 
suction connection on either side, as convenient, and has 
ample openings for removal or examination of valves. The 
capacity of the cylinder is such that at 45 strokes per minute 
a delivery of 7000 gallons per minute is obtained. 

The water-piston is packed with square fibrous packing for 




3 



267 



268 



PUMPING MACHINERY. 



taking wear and with cupped leather rings for preventing 
leakage. 

The air-vessels are of cast iron, with brass water-gauges 
and air-charging device whereby air is automatically main- 
tained at proper height. 

The piston-rods are of machinery steel, secured to the 
pistons w 7 ith brass nuts and jam-nuts and to the cross-head 
by steel keys. The tie-rods for uniting the steam- and water- 
cylinders are of iron, neatly turned and finished. 

Oil-cups are placed at all points where lubrication is re- 
quired, and a brass one-quart sight-feed lubricator is placed 
on the high-pressure steam-cylinder. 

With each engine is furnished a Davidson independent 
condenser, with steam-cylinder 8 inches and air-cylinder 14 
inches in diameter and a stroke of 16 inches. The air-cylin- 
der is lined w 7 ith brass, and has 
brass valve-seats and guards and 
sheet -metal valves. Condensers 
have vacuum-breaking attachments 
to insure against flooding the 




steam - cvlinder of main engines 
and possible damage to them by 
reason of inattention or negligence 
on the part of those in charge. 

It is of interest to compare this 
pumping engine with other well- 
known pumpim 



engines. 



Of 



course the first question which 
arises is as to comparative duty or 
fuel economy. In a power-plant 
working under the conditions pres- 
ent in most water-works pumping- 
stations, the matter of fuel economy 
is rightly considered of the first importance. A high-duty 
pumping engine, very expensive in first cost, may be much 
more economical in the long run than a cheap engine giving 
only moderate fuel economy. 



Cross-section through valve-cylinder. 



COMPOUND DIRECT-ACTING STEAM-PUMPS. 269 

So far no direct-acting steam-pump (with the exception of 
the Worthington engine with the high- duty attachment) has 
been able to approach in fuel economy the fly-wheel engines, 
which store up the force exerted by the steam during the first 
part of the stroke and give it out again on the last part of the 
stroke when the steam is expanded and is pressing with less 
force upon the piston. 

As to the question how the pump illustrated may be ex- 
pected to compare in duty with the best types of compound 
duplex pumping engines, it is difficult to form any opinion 
without a comparison of indicator diagrams. The duplex 
compound can cut off the stroke and secure considerable 
expansion of steam in the first cylinder, and has the great 
advantage of securing a steady movement of the water at the 
pump end by the mutual action of the two cylinders. 

The triple-expansion engine here illustrated has the advan- 
tage of carrying on the expansion in three cylinders. If we 
assume that in this engine the valves of the three cylinders 
open and close in exact unison, and each valve remains open 
for the whole stroke, which we believe is practically correct, 
then the number of expansions obtained is the ratio between 
the areas of the high-pressure and the low-pressure pistons. 
Since these are to each other as the square of their diameters, 
or as n^ 2 : 36*, the number of expansions will be 1296 -f- 
132.25 = 10, nearly. While the highest duties recorded by 
pumping engines have been obtained with greater ratios of 
expansion than the above, many excellent records have been 
made with about this number of expansions. The pumping 
engine at Lawrence, Mass., designed by E. D. Leavitt, expands 
the steam about 22 times, and the Pawtucket engine, designed 
by Geo. H. Corliss, expands the steam about 18 times. The 
ordinary duplex direct-acting engines have, as a rule, much 
smaller ratios of expansions. 

The position of the high-pressure cylinder in this engine 
seems rather unfortunate for the attainment of a high duty, on 
account of the long pipe necessary to carry the steam to the 
intermediate cylinder. The clearance of the intermediate 

23* 



2-JO PUMPING MACHINERY. 

cylinder is practically increased by the volume of this pipe. 
This arrangement of the steam-cylinders was adopted to per- 
mit the examination and packing or readjustment of each of 
the three steam-pistons with the least delay and inconvenience. 

The piston-speed when working at the contract capacity is 
135 feet per minute. This again is much lower than that of 
the fly-wheel engines. The Lawrence engine works at about 
216 feet piston-speed, and the Pawtucket engine at about 250 
feet per minute. The speed of 135 feet per minute, however, 
is certainly high for direct-acting pumps, and we understand 
that the engine is capable of as high speeds even as 20O feet, 
or 67 strokes per minute. It is remarkable that smooth 
motion and freedom from shock can be obtained from so large 
a pump moving its own valves. 

It is to be hoped that a thorough duty test may be made of 
these engines after they are in place, that it may be known 
what economy can be attained with engines of this class. 



FIRE- PUMPS. 271 




CHAPTER XIII. 



FIRE-PUMPS. 



The Underwriter Pump is the name adopted by The Asso- 
ciated Factory Mutual Insurance Companies to designate a 
steam fire-pump built in strict accordance with certain specifi- 
cations, the salient points of which are given below, taken 
from a special circular prepared for the use of their agents 
and patrons. The writer regards this circular as containing 
the most intelligent and carefully-prepared specifications for 
steam fire-pumps that have come to his knowledge. 

INTRODUCTION. 

Fire-pumps at the factories which we insure are so very 
frequently found incapable of being started promptly when 
tried for our inspectors, particularly at the spring inspection, 
and are found in so very many cases to be incapable of deliv- 
ering anywhere near their alleged or rated capacity without 
violent " hammering," as to make it plainly evident that some 
improvement in fire-pumps is greatly needed at the average 
mill in one or all three of the following particulars : 

The construction of the pump. 

The erection and fitting up of the pump. 

The care of the pump. 

Steam fire-pumps are ordinarily sold, rated, and expected 
to run at double the speed of a pump for boiler-feeding or 
any ordinary water-supply ; they do not ordinarily receive 
such care or attention as a steam-engine or other machine on 
which the product of the mill depends. Being constantly 
subject to dampness, warmth, and contact with condensed 
steam, their parts are especially subject to rust. After weeks 



272 PUMPIXG MACHINERY. 

and months of disuse a fire-pump should be capable of being 
instantly started and run at full speed by a man who is 
excited and perhaps unskilful. 

Therefore a fire-pump needs more strength, better work- 
manship, and better protection against rust than does a 
pump for boiler-feeding or ordinary miscellaneous use ; and 
the high speed at which it is expected to run demands the 
large steam valve-ports and large suction-valve areas specified 
below. 

These specifications cover only certain general features of 
the design, and may be viewed as an effort to indicate to those 
whom we insure the kind and quality of pump which we 
believe is needed. 

Beyond these features which are specified, the various pump- 
makers are free to follow each his own judgment and experi- 
ence in details of shop practice, to the end that competition 
in excellence may be encouraged. On the pump-maker rests 
the responsibility* for first-class workmanship, material, and 
strength of castings, bolting, etc. 



SPECIFICATIONS. 

Article i. Only " duplex pumps" are acceptable for steam 
fire-pumps. 

(So-called " duplex" pumps, consisting of a pair of pumps with " steam-thrown 
valves" actuated by supplemental pistons, are not acceptable.) 

The experience of our inspectors goes to show that duplex pumps are more 
certain of starting after long disuse. The whole power of the main cylinder is 
available for moving a corroded valve or valve-rod, whereas on a single pump 
with a steam-thrown valve no such surplus of power is available. 

Further, the direct-acting duplex has the great advantage over a fly-wheel pump 
of not suffering breakage if water gets into the steam-cylinder. 



SIZE OF PUMP. 

Art. 2. The present multiplicity of odd sizes is confusing, 
and different makers estimate the capacity in gallons according 
to different arbitrarv standards. 



FIRE-PUMPS. 



273 






(To simplify matters we recommend that only the four 
different sizes given below be recognized or considered.) 



a r. E 

2 c « 






U 



One stream. 



Two 
streams. 



250 

to 

320 



500 



Three 
streams. 



750 



Four 
streams. 



iooo 



4 
to 
1 



4 
to 
I 



3 

to 

1 



3 
to 
1 



(See Article 4 for commercial sizes.) 



Too Small 'for a Fire- Pump 

except as an auxiliary. Convenient for 
regular use in extensive boiler-feeding 
or domestic supply. 

At speed suitable for continuous use delivery 
would be but about half this, or about 150 gal- 
lons per minute. 



Ordinary Size for Small Mills. 

This needs steam-boilers of at least 100 
horse-power capacity to drive pump at rated 
full speed and maintain 100 pounds water- 
pressure. A steam- pressure of at least 40 
pounds is needed at the pump to give this 
water pressure of 100 pounds at full speed. 

(The foregoing is for pumps in the best of 
order.) 



Ordinary Size for General Use. 

This needs steam-boilers of at least 115 
horse-power and a steam-pressure of at least 
48 pounds square inch at the pump to drive at 
full speed and at 100 pounds square inch water- 
pressure 

Pressure at boiler must be a little more to 
allow for loss of steam-pressure between boiler 
and pump. 

For cases where boiler-pressure is unusually 
low (less than 50 pounds), use a pump with 
larger (4 to 1) steam-cylinder. 



Size for Large Factories. 

Requires 150 horse power boiler capacity 
and at least 44 pounds square inch steam-press- 
ure. 

(The boiler h^rse-powers above are reckoned 
on the A S. M E. basis of 30 pounds of water 
evaporated or consumed per I. H. P. per hour, 
and are for pumps in the best order, and with 
parts as given in these specifications ) 

( Pumps in poor order or too tightly 
packed will require more steam than 
stated above.) 



Where more than iooo gallons capacity is needed it is 
generally best to provide two pumps. 



274 PUMPING MACHINERY. 

Two hundred and fifty gallons per minute is our standard allowance for a good 
: ..-ir.ch smooth-nozzlej fire-stream. 

(From 15 to 20 automatic sprinklers may be reckoned as discharging about the 
same quantity as a i^-inch hose-stream under the ordinary practical conditions 
as to pipes supplying sprinkler and hose systems respectively.) 

It is not expected to provide pump capacity sufficient to supply all the sprink- 
lers in a large room for operation all at once ; it being assumed that if controllable 
by ?r tinklers the fire will be controlled before spreading outside the area covered 
by from 25 to 75 heads. 

CAPACITY, HOW COMPUTED. 

Art. 3. The capacity of a pump depends on the speed at 
which it can be run. 

To compare different pumps, some definite speed must be 
agreed on as a basis, 

We have adopted, — 

\ 10-inch stroke, — Full speed = 75 revolutions per minute, 
steam-pumps of! 

^^^' \ 12-inch stroke, — Full speed = 70 revolutions per minute, 
steam-pumps of J 

The rated capacity is, therefore, to be computed as the 
product of the speed just stated, by the plunger displacement 
for one revolution, corrected for piston-rod volume and for 
full nominal length of stroke, and with 10 per cent, deduction 
for slip and loss of action. 

One revolution means one complete circuit of the motion of any of the recip- 
rocating parts of the pump, and for a duplex pump is equivalent to four single 
strokes. ** Revolutions" is a term less liable to be misunderstood than ~ strokes.") 

It is all right to run fire-pumps at the highest speed that is 
possible without causing violent jar or hammering within the 
cylinders. 

Although a 12-inch stroke is 20 per cent, longer than a io-inch stroke, the 
maximum delivery of a 1 2-inch-stroke pump will not be so much as 20 per cent, 
more than the delivery of a 10-inch-stroke pump of same diameter, for the reason 
that, having to travel farther, it cannot make quite so many revolutions per minute 
before jar will begin. 

On the other hand, it will deliver somewhat more, perhaps 12 per cent, more, 
than the 10-inch-stroke pump, because it can get equal delivery with a less number 
of reversals of motion per minute. 



FIRE-PUMPS. 



275 



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ers are hardly expected to pre- 
pare special patterns for them 
at present. 



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2j6 



PUMPING MACHINERY. 



No pump with areas less than 3 to I will, except under special circumstances, 
be accepted as a fire-pump. 

It has been common to make all fire-pumps with water-plunger of only one- 
fourth the area of steam-piston, with the idea that the pump could thereby be 
more readily run at night, when steam was low. 

The capacity in gallons is thus reduced 25 per cent, as compared with a 3 to I 
plunger on the same steam-cylinders. 

Often, especially with large pumps, this is a mistake, for though the pump might 
start and give a few puffs, it withdraws so much steam that it can run effectively 
for but an extremely short time without the boiler fires are first aroused to make 
fresh steam to replace that withdrawn. 

A steam-piston relatively larger than necessary is a source of weakness. It takes 
more volume of steam, and gives more power with which to burst something if the 
throttle is opened wide suddenly during excitement. 

Art. 5. The inside-plunger pattern of pump is preferred to 
the water-piston pattern for all situations where water is rea- 
sonably free from grit or mud, and will generally be best for 
all New England situations. 

For pumps in the West or South, or for water like Ohio 
river water, a water-piston with packing or a packed plunger 
gives much better wear. 

By means of the priming-tank and pipes hereinafter speci- 
fied, the plunger pattern is enabled to " get hold of its water" 
as quickly as the piston pattern even under extreme lifts, and 
our experience goes to show that the plunger pattern is much 
better adapted to start free after long disuse or unskilful treat- 
ment. 

SIZE- PLATE. 

Art. 6. Every steam fire-pump must bear a conspicuous 
statement of its capacity, thus : 



16 x 9 1 / X 10. 

Capacity 750 gallons per minute, or three 
good I ^-inch smooth nozzle streams. 

Full speed, 75 revolutions per minute. 

For fire purposes never let steam get below 
50 pounds, nights or Sundays. 



This plate to be of porcelain-like enamel, bearing black 



FIRE-PUMPS. 277 

letters y 2 inch high on a white ground. The letters being of 
enamel and burned in. 

The plate is to be securely attached to the inboard side of 
the air-chamber. 

BRASS FITTING. 

Art. 7. Fire-pumps are to be brass fitted throughout, — viz., 
both piston-rods for their whole length are to be preferably 
of solid rods of special bronze, equal in quality to Tobin 
bronze, but rods of steel covered with a brass shell l /i inch 
thick throughout both water- and steam-ends are acceptable. 

(Common foundry bronze composition is not dense or 
strong enough for this purpose.) 

Valve-rods are to be preferably of solid Tobin bronze, or 
may be brass covered through their bearings in stuffing-boxes. 

Water- plungers are to be of solid brass or bronze, and the 
ring in which they slide is also to be of brass or bronze. The 
composition of the plunger and its ring should be of very 
dissimilar alloys to insure good wearing qualities. 

All six stuffing-boxes are to be bushed at the bottom with 
a brass ring with suitable neck and flange, and the follower or 
gland is to be either of solid brass, or is to be lined with a 
brass shell 3-16 inch thick, united with a flange covering the 
end next the packing. 

STRENGTH OF PARTS. 

Art. 8. The maker is to be understood to warrant each 
pump built under these specifications, to be at time of delivery, 
in all its parts, strong enough to admit of closing all valves on 
water outlet pipes while steam-valve is wide open and steam- 
pressure 80 pounds, and agree to test it before shipment 
from his works. 

(In other words, although these pumps are not expected to be designed for a 
regular working water-pressure of 240 or 320 pounds, it is expected that bolts, 
shells, rods, etc., will be figured to stand this comparatively quiet, temporary, high 
pressure exclusive of further allowance for initial strain due setting up of bolts, 
with a factor of safety of at least four.) 

24 



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FIRE PUMPS. 279 

Stiffness of springs is for the present not specified, but left to the discretion of 
each maker. Preferably one rather stiff standard spring had best be uniformly 
used for all force-valves, while for the suction-valves three grades of stiffness can 
be used with advantage. 

Thus the standard will serve for all lifts up to 18 feet. 

An extra mild spring can be used for higher lifts, and an extra stiff spring where 
pump takes its suction under 5 pounds or more pressure may aid pump in run- 
ning smoothly at high speed. 

VALVE-SEATS. 

Art. 13. Valve-seats to be all of U. S. gun-metal compo- 
sition and firmly secured into valve-deck by forcing in on a 
screw-threaded taper, or by forcing in on a smooth taper and 
expanding out its lower edge below the valve-deck. 

STICKING OF VALVES. 

Art. 14. A serious objectionable feature of fire-pump valves, and one for which 
no satisfactory remedy has been put in practice as yet, is that if the pump is left 
standing or unused for several weeks or months the rubber valve-disks are some- 
times liable to become stuck to their seats, and if suction has a high lift there may 
not be vacuum enough to tear all the suction- valves open. 

At present we can only repeatedly urge that steam fire-pumps be started enough 
to limber them up, at least once a fortnight. 

Perhaps some non-corrosive alloy of nickel or aluminum can be found which 
rubber vulcanized with sulphur would not corrode and adhere to, and experience 
in other arts indicates that rubber will not adhere to a block-tin face even with 
extreme long standing. This is a subject well worth investigation by pump- 
makers. 

STEAM-PORTS. 

Art. 15. The minimum area of each exhaust-steam passage,, 
at its smallest section, is to be not less than 4 per cent, of the 
area of the piston from which it leads. 

This is a large increase over the size heretofore common, but indicator- cards 
which we have taken from pumps of several different makes indicate this to be 
one of the points in which improvement is most needed to accommodate the high 
speeds at which fire-pumps are always supposed to run, and this unrestricted 
exhaust aids very materially in giving steadiness to the jet of water. 

The admission-ports may be not less than 2 x / 2 per cent, of 
piston area. 

Although from structural reasons the steam-port has usually heretofore been 
made of same size as exhaust-port, it can perhaps be advantageously made shorter. 



2SO PUMPING MACHINERY. 



STEAM-CLEARANCE SPACE. 

The clearance space between face of piston and cylinder-head must be reduced 
to smallest possible amount, and these contacting surfaces be flat, without projec- 
tions or recesses, excepting the one for the piston-rod nut 

Some makers, with the idea that a fire-pump need not be economical, have not 
taken pains to keep these waste spaces small. 

Securing small clearance costs almost nothing but care in design, and is often 
of value, since at many factories boiler capacity is scanty for the large quantity of 
steam taken by a fire-pump of proper size. 

The edges of the steam valve-ports and likewise of the 
valve are to be accurately milled, or chipped and exactly filed 
to templets, true to line, and the face of valve and its seat 
accurately scraped to a plane surface, all in a most thorough 
and workmanlike manner and equal to high-grade steam- 
engine work. 

STEAM SLIDE-VALVE ADJUSTMENTS. 
(Adjustable valves are not recommended.) 

It is recognized that the practice of making adjustable 
valve-tappets located outside the steam-chest is a good thing 
on a large pump in constant service and operated by a skilled 
engine-driver, but for the infrequently used ordinary fire- 
pump the utmost simplicity is desirable, and it is best not to 
tempt the ordinary man in charge to "readjust" the valve- 
gear. 

Since the number of different sizes of pumps called for in these specifications 
are few, it is recommended that gauges and templets be prepared by which the 
valve position can be set once for all without necessity or ready means for re- 
adjustments. 

CUSHION-VALVES. 

Art, i 6. Cushion-valves regulating the amount of steam- 
cushion at ends of stroke, by controlling a passage commu- 
nicating between steam- and exhaust-ports, are recommended 
for the 7 50- gallon and 1000-gallon pumps. They may, if the 
maker thinks it desirable for simplicity, be omitted on the 
pumps of 500 gallons per minute or less capacity. 

In order to obviate the possibility of the pump pounding itself to pieces in case 
of a sudden release of load, as by a break in suction- or delivery-mains, we recom- 



FIRE-PUMPS. 



28l 



mend that the steam-cushion release be through independent ports terminating y^ 
inch back from cylinder-head, instead of through the induction-port opening, as 
at present common. 

This makes the pump safer in case cushion-valves are unskilfully left open too 
wide. 

STROKE GAUGE. 

Art. 17. A length-of-stroke index or gauge will be insisted 
on in all cases. These are to be of satisfactory strong and 
simple form for at all times rendering obvious the exact length 
of stroke which both pistons are making, and thus calling 
attention to improper adjustment of cushion-valves or stuffing- 
boxes. 

PIPE SIZES. 

Art. 18. Suction- and discharge-pipe connections must 
have standard flanges to connect with pipes of the sizes given 
below. 



Size of Pump. 
Gallons per Min- 
ute. 


Diameterof Suction- 
Pipe. Inches. 


Diameter of Dis- 
ch arge-P i p e. 
Inches. 


Steam-Pipe. 


Exhaust Pipe. 


320 

500 

750 
IOGO 


6 

8 

10 

12 


5 
6 

7 
8 


2K 

3 
4 


3 

4 
4 
5 



These suction-pipe sizes, although larger than heretofore common, are believed 
to be amply justified by our experience, and exert a powerful influence towards 
enabling the pump to run smoothly at high speed with water-cylinders filling per- 
fectly at each stroke. No defect is more common than restricted suction-pipes. 

There should preferably be three suction entrances, — viz., 
one each side and one at end of pump. One of these 
openings is designed for the attachment of the suction air- 
chamber, and the providing of two others is often a great 
convenience in adapting pump to any particular location, or 
in permitting drafting from two different sources of supply. 

A single central end suction-opening is, however, acceptable. 



VACUUM-CHAMBER. 

Art. 19. The suction air-chamber (often called a vacuum- 
chamber), or its equivalent mentioned below, is to regularly 
form a part of every pump made under these specifications. 

24* 



2%2 PUMPING MACHINERY. 

This may, however, be omitted under special agreement for cases where suction 
is from an open reservoir by a pipe of full specified size less than twenty feet in 
total length, but flanges must be arranged so it can be readily added afterwards if 
found necessary. 

If so desired, the vacuum- chamber may consist of a closed vertical pipe of 
same diameter as suction, and 6 feet long. 

This vacuum-chamber must be attached to the pump in the most direct way 
practicable, but provision must be made for attaching it in such manner as not to 
prevent readily taking off the cylinder-heads. 

For pumps taking feed under a head, a vertical open pipe of same diameter as 
suction, reaching up to five feet above level of feed-water, is much preferable to a 
closed suction- chamber, since the latter is liable to become filled with water. If 
a great head or other cause makes this impracticable, the vacuum chamber should 
be so connected and fitted with gates that it may readily have water emptied and 
be filled with air while pump is in motion. 

AIR-CHAMBER. 

A large air-chamber is more necessary on a fire pump than on other pumps; 
without it the hose vibrates so that holes are quickly worn through. 

An air-chamber of hammered copper, and warranted tested 
under a hydraulic pressure of not less than 300 pounds per 
square inch, is preferable to cast iron, as, holding the air better 
and being lighter, it wrenches and strains the pump less when 
running fast and shaking. 

The air-chamber will be acceptable, however, if made of 
cast iron ; but then it is to be warranted subjected to a hy- 
draulic test of 400 pounds per square inch before connection 
to pump, and is to be thoroughly painted inside and out to 
diminish its porosity. 

The form of air-chamber combined with the elbow beneath it, and also the 
relief-valve and hose-valve connections, should all be carefully designed to make 
the whole height the very least possible. Keeping this weight low makes the pump 
run steadier and brings less strain on the flanges at high speeds. 

SIZE OF VACUUM- AND AIR-CHAMBERS. 

Air-Chamber is to con- 
tain : 




320-gallon pump. 8 gallons. 10 gallons. 

500- " " 13 " 17 " 

750- " " 18 " 25 " 

1000- " " 24 " 30 " 



FIRE-PUMPS. 283 

These volumes are based on making suction-chamber for long pipes six times, 
and pressure-chamber eight times one displacement of one plunger. 

Where the suction will never be from a pipe under pressure, and where the suc- 
tion-pipe has a total length of less than 25 feet, vacuum-chambers of from half to 
two-thirds the above will be acceptable. 

PRESSURE-GAUGES. 

Art. 20. A water-pressure gauge provided with J^-inch 
cock with lever handle is to be provided with the pump, and 
connected close to the air-chamber. 

The gauge itself is to be of the 5-inch iron case duplex spring pattern (such as 
used on locomotives), this kind of gauge being believed to be the best for with- 
standing the vibrations which cause gauges on fire- pumps so often to be unreliable. 

A steam pressure-gauge of the same kind is to be attached 
to the steam-chest inside the throttle-valve. 

SAFETY-VALVE. 

Art. 21. A safety- or relief-valve of the Ashton, Crosby, or 
other similar and accepted pattern is to be regularly included 
in the price, and is to be attached to each pump ; preferably 
extending horizontally inboard from base of air-chamber, so 
that its hand-wheel for regulating pressure is within easy reach. 

This valve is to be set ordinarily at a working pressure of 
100 pounds to the square inch, and is to be of such capacity 
that it can discharge the full throw of the pump at ^3 speed, 
at a pressure not exceeding 125 pounds per square inch. It 
is to be provided with a hand-wheel, marked very conspicuously 
to show direction of turning, thus : — open 



It should not have a locked adjustment, and does not need a device for lifting 
valve from seat by hand. 

Until further experiment it will be assumed that — 

For 320-gallon pump a 2]/ z -inch Ashton valve (or equivalent) is suitable. 
u coo. u " 1- " " " " 

" 75°" " " 1/4- " " " " 

" 1000 " " 4- " " " " 

This should discharge by a vertical, downward pipe, about 
2}4 feet long, opening into a cone or tunnel, fitted to a 6-, 8-, 
or 1 o-inch waste-pipe. 



284 PUMPING MACHINERY. 

This very short open part at the cone being for rendering 
it obvious to pump operator whether water is wasting through 
relief-valve. 

This cone and its pipes are not included in price of pump. 

DRIP-COCKS. 

Art. 22. Three eighths-inch brass drip-cocks with a lever- 
handle are to be provided on both ends of each water-cylinder 
and each steam-cylinder, for effectually draining the same. A 
similar drain-cock is also to be provided for drawing off the 
water above the upper valve-deck. 

A J^-inch air-cock with lever-handle is to be attached to 
the cover over water-cylinders. 

(Cocks with lever-handle are used on account of showing to every passer-by 
whether they are open or shut.) 

PRIMING-PIPES. 

Art. 23. Each pump is to be regularly fitted with i-inch 
brass priming-pipes before leaving the shop, as follows (these 
being included in its price), beginning at a 2 x I x i-inch brass 
tee close to pump beneath delivery-flange, and thence extend- 
ing to four 3,^-inch valves, one of which leads into each of the 
four plunger-chambers. These priming-pipes should not con- 
nect into suction-pipe, lest priming-water be thereby wasted, 
and should not connect with chamber above force-valves. 

For cases where pump only takes its suction under a head, these priming-pipes 
may be omitted, but openings for them into the pump-shell must be provided and 
fitted with screw-plugs. 

A priming-tank (not included in pump contract unless at an 
extra charge) will in all cases be a requirement in the instruc- 
tions for properly setting up a fire-pump to which the water 
does not flow under a head. This tank must be situated with 
its bottom not lower than 5 feet above the pump, and con- 
taining a volume of water equal to half the nominal capacity 
of the pump in gallons per minute, said priming-tank to be 
for the sole and exclusive use of the fire-pump, and connected 
with nothing else whatever. 



FIRE- PUMPS. 285 

Having this provision for priming quickly and surely, a 
foot-valve at bottom of suction-pipe is not needed. 

Art. 24. Each pump is to be regularly fitted, not as an 
extra, but as a part included in the cost of the pump, with 
hose connections, consisting of Chapman Valve Company's 
2 ^2 -inch Straight-way Hose Valves (not including cap and 
chain), attached to the neck of air-chamber. The number of 
these is to be as follows : 

For the 300-gallon pump One. 

500- " Two. 

750- " Three. 

1000- " Four. 

The screw-head at end of these valves for connecting to hose is to be either 
fitted to a hose- coupling furnished by the customer, or left with the thread uncut. 

Art. 25. Tests for acceptance after pump is set up at its 
destination : 

1. Pump being set up in good order and properly packed, 
is to run smoothly without slamming or jumping or hammer- 
ing, at its full rated speed (of 70 or 75 revolutions per minute), 
and make full normal stroke, meanwhile maintaining a water- 
pressure of IOO pounds per square inch while furnished with 

45 pounds square inch steam-pressure for the 500 gallons (4toi). 
50 " " " " 750 « (3 to I). 

45 " " " " 1000 " (3 to I). 

Water- pressure being measured at base of air-chamber. 

Steam-pressure being measured close to steam-chest. 

Start slow. Gradually and alternately open throttle to give speed required, 
and if hose is short or discharge too free, close or adjust outlet-valve to give back 
pressure enough to raise water-gauge to about 100 pounds. 

Pump is to run at full speed free from thumping without necessity for " snifting" 
air into suction. 

2. During this trial it is preferable to discharge the water 
through two, three, or four i )^-inch smooth nozzles (accord- 
ing to the number the pump is rated to supply, as per Art. 4). 
Each nozzle being connected to the hose outlet on the pump 
by 150 feet of 2^-inch rubber-lined hose, and meanwhile 
note the pressure of water. 



286 PUMPING MACHINERY. 

The ioo pounds water-pressure is intended to allow for friction in hose lines 
150 feet long. If shorter lines are used, the same nozzle delivery will be 
obtained with less pressure at the pump. 

3. While thus playing through the nozzles the hose near 
the pump should lie quiet, or with but little sliding to and fro 
on the ground near the pump. One of the nicest points 
about building a pump is to so design its valves and gear 
that the pulsations of the pump will not quickly wear holes 
in the hose by causing it to rub back and forth at each beat 
of the piston, and the quietness with which the hose lies is a 
good index of the pump-maker's skill in securing uniform 
delivery. 

4. An experiment may then be made to determine the 
greatest speed at which pump can be run, at 100 pounds 
water-pressure, before beginning to jar or pound seriously, 
cushion-valves meanwhile being adjusted. 

This may be tried by adding another line of hose at some 
hydrant hear, and seeing how well the pump will fill this 
extra nozzle in addition to those it is rated to deliver. 

Count the revolutions, and note the steam- and water-press- 
ures meanwhile. 

5. With all water outlets closed and with sufficient steam 
admitted to give 80 pounds average water-pressure, the internal 
leakage is to be so small that pump will not make more than 
one revolution per minute. 

The safety-valve should be on during this test, lest pressure be accidentally 
carried too high. 

6. With all water outlets nearly, but not completely, closed 
and safety-valve screwed down and steam admitted sufficient 
to give a water-pressure of 240 pounds per square inch, pump 
moving very slowly meanwhile, all joints about the pump are 
to remain substantially tight. 

7. With all other outlets closed and the safety-valve ad- 
justed to 100 pounds, then on starting the pump this safety- 
valve should be sufficient to discharge the full delivery of the 
pump at fifty revolutions per minute, with a pressure of not 
over 125 pounds. 



FIRE-PUMPS. 287 

8. A brief experiment may then be made, with cushion- 
valves wide open, to determine greatest speed at which pump 
can be run in this condition without injurious hammering. 

FINALLY, COST. 

Art. 26. A pump built as specified above will cost more 
than a fire-pump of same size built as heretofore, but we be- 
lieve it well worth the extra cost ; and the tests on the few 
pumps already made indicate that the first cost per gallon 
actual capacity is, by reason of smooth running and higher 
speed, practicable, even less than for the ordinary style. 

The main points of difference are : 

Pump has brass plungers instead of cast-iron ones. 

Pump has bronze piston-rods and valve-rods instead of iron. 
Pump has brass-lined stuffing-boxes instead of iron. 

Area of water-valves 25 to 50 per cent, greater. 

Steam- and exhaust-passages 20 to 50 per cent, greater. 

Suction-pipe connections 2 to 4 inches greater diameter. 

Cushion-valves better arranged. 

Air-chamber is made much larger. 

Shells and bolting are warranted especially strong. 

The following necessary fittings, heretofore charged for as 
extras, are included in the price, and regularly furnished as a 
part of this pump, — viz. : 

A capacity-plate is added. 

A stroke-gauge is added. 

A vacuum-chamber is added. 

Two best quality pressure-gauges. 

A water-relief valve of large capacity. 

A set of brass priming-pipes and valves. 

From two to four Chapman hose-valves. 

A sight-feed cylinder-lubricator is added. 

Respectfully submitted, 

JOHN R. FREEMAN, 

Engineer Assoc. Mutual Ins. Co. 
June 1, 1891. 



288 PUMPING MACHINERY. 

The following vote was passed at the monthly conference 
of the Associated Companies, June 15, 1891 : 

" Voted : To recommend that the so-called ' Underwriter's Pattern' of steam 
fire-pump, complete with all attachments as per specification of June I, be recog- 
nized as the approved type, and that pumps built and fitted up less perfectly than 
per this specification be not approved in future installations, except under special 
circumstances and by special agreement with some executive officer of the in- 
surance companies." 



MINING-PUMPS. 289 



CHAPTER XIV. 



MINING-PUMPS. 



Pumping engines for mines are generally placed under- 
ground ; there are instances in this country in which the 
engines are located on the surface, but by far the larger num- 
ber are down in the mines, and usually making the delivery 
in a single lift. The service required of a mine-pump is con- 
stant, and as pumps are not always duplicated, it is a matter 
of first importance that they be properly proportioned as to 
strength, and furnished with a valve mechanism not liable to 
get out of order. 

There was formerly no uniformity in the type of pump used 
in mines ; piston-pumps and several varieties of packed 
plunger-pumps were employed, but, all things considered, the 
use of plunger-pumps is preferable to that of piston-pumps, 
especially in deep mining operations. The plunger-pump is 
almost exclusively used at this time, for in the old plan of 
working under a heavy pressure with a piston, if dirty water 
were met with, the pump is less likely to give satisfaction; the 
cylinder cuts out quickly, and if a lining is employed, it is a 
costly operation in a large pump to put in another. 

The metal used for mine-pumps is almost always hard 
cast iron; occasionally, however, a gun-metal water-end is 
used, but such examples are rare, especially for large pumps. 
It is customary to give water-end castings for mine-pumps an 
extra thickness of metal apart from that necessary for work- 
ing strength, including any jar or water hammer, the pump 
castings under pressure having from half an inch to an inch 
and a half added to the thickness for deterioration. The metal 

N / 25 



290 PUMPING MACHINERY. 

itself is made very- hard ; in fact, as hard as can be worked 
with special steel tools ; ordinary machine castings have been 
found to be entirely too soft to long withstand the action of 
bad water. A water-end of a pump was recently shown the 
writer, in which, by a sudden change in the character of the 
water in a mine from sweet to bad, the pump was utterly 
ruined in less than a month's service. The pump was brass 
fitted, the castings soft gray iron ; the action of the acid water 
was to loosen the valve-seats and attack every interior por- 
tion of the pump which came in contact with the brass, as well 
as corroding such portions as had been machine fitted. 

The action of mine water is very capricious, and does not 
affect all portions of a pump alike ; that is to say, all parts are 
subject to the destructive action of the acid water, but certain 
localized points in the interior are often found to deteriorate 
much more rapidly than others. For such portions of a pump 
special provision may be made in advance by having duplicate 
parts, if the water-end be made up of sections, easily attached 
whenever needed. 

Sinking-punips are usually vertical direct-acting single 
pumps with steam-thrown valve-gear. The water- ends are 
of either the piston, differential plunger, or fitted with double- 
acting plungers centrally packed ; the latter, being a better 
type of pump for handling gritty water, is more favorably 
thought of by mine-operators than either of the former. 
Such pumps are fitted with an eye-bolt in the upper cylinder- 
head, or with three eye-bolts attached at points of support, 
which will enable the pump to hang vertically when sus- 
pended by a chain. In addition to this, wrought-iron dogs 
or clamps are provided by which the pump may be fastened 
to suitable timbers on the side o( a shaft; the pump may, 
therefore, be either held in suspension from above, and raised 
or lowered as may be required in the case of a flooded mine, 
or it may be temporarily fixed to the side of the shaft, to be 
lowered at such intervals as the progress of sinking a shaft 
may require. 






MINING-PUMPS. 291 

A sinking-pump must be simple, compact, strongly made, 
and the valve-gear well protected. Probably no other type of 
pump is subjected to the rough usage which sinking-pumps 
invariably get. It is a condition which cannot be overcome 
in the preliminary stages of mining, on account of -the lia- 
bility of accident from blasting operations, the necessity at 
all times for pumping gritty and often acid water, and the 
fact that there is always more or less muddy water trick- 
ling down the shaft from the water-bearing strata overhead, 
which so completely covers a pump with mud that if it were 
not in motion it could scarcely be distinguished from any 
other mass of debris. Notwithstanding all this, a sinking- 
pump must work continuously night and day, and often up to 
its limit of capacity. The failure of such a pump at a critical 
period, even for a day, may flood a shaft, which would require 
a week or more to recover. 

The Cameron sinking-pump, by reason of its having 
no external valve-gear, has met the above conditions, and as a 
result it is very popular with mine-operators. The steam-end 
of this pump has been previously described and illustrated in 
the sectional engraving, Fig. 160, which shows the mechanism 
by which the steam-piston is operated for horizontal mine- 
pumps ; for vertical sinking-pumps the valve-chest is placed 
at right angles to the stroke, the port-openings being arranged 
to correspond, a detail easily understood, and does not require 
special illustration. A sectional elevation of a double-plunger 
pump, showing the arrangement of stuffing boxes, suction- 
and delivery-valves, and suction-pipe are clearly shown in 
Fig. 194. 

A vertical sinking-pump by the Deane Steam-Pump Com- 
pany is shown in sectional elevation in Figs. 195 and 196. This 
design is intended to meet the demands for such a machine in 
the mining districts of Colorado. These machines are for sink- 
ing or unwatering mines or for any use where a varying water- 
level must be accommodated. The plungers are in one piece, 
are double-acting and centre-packed ; they can be very easily 



292 



PUMPING MACHINERY. 



and quickly packed by the removal of only two glands. The 
valves are of rubber, of a special texture for heavy duty and 
to resist the action of bad mine water, with brass covers. 



Fig. 194. 




Hinged bolts are used on the hand-hole plates ; stuffing-box 
glands and all removable parts and all nuts throughout the 
machine are secured by split pins, so that no parts may be 
lost while the machine is being packed or adjusted. The 



MIXIXG-PUMPS. 



293 



machine is fully equipped with drip- and sand-valves. The 

suction is taken in at the bottom of the pump, thus saving a 

Fig. 195. length of pipe required by most 

machines of this class. The 

Fig. 196. 



ur 



n 



:og 




valve motion is the well-known Deane patent. It is absolutely 

positive, and will start at any point of its stroke, and is thor- 

25* 



2 9 4 



PUMPING MACHINERY. 



oughly protected by a cast-iron shield, which also serves as 
the yoke between the steam- and water-ends. The steam- 
cylinder is equipped with cushion-valves to regulate the up 
and down strokes of the engine. Each machine is made with 

a bale attached to the 
steam-cylinder, and 
also with shoes and 
dogs to secure easy 
handling and control 
while in the shaft. 

A duplex sink- 
ing-pump by Wor- 
thington is shown in 
Fig. 197. It is not 
often that duplex 
pumps are arranged 
to work vertically, 
but when properly 
designed for such 
a position they will 
be quite as satisfac- 
tory in their opera- 
tion as if employed 
horizontally. A 

close inspection of 
the engraving of this 
sinking-pump shows 
that in the several 
details of the water- 
end the best practice 
in mining -pump 
design has been car- 
ried out. The water- 
plungers are double- 
acting, working through exterior stuffing-boxes and adjust- 
able packing. Means are provided, as shown in the engraving, 




MINING-PUMPS. 295 

for either suspending the machine at the eye-bolt shown be- 
tween the steam-cylinders, or for hanging it on suitable timbers 
on the sides of the shaft. The suction opening is at the lower 
end of the pump, convenient for attaching the suction-pipe or 
hose. The discharge connection to column-pipe is on the 
side. The water-valves are enclosed in heavy pot-chambers, 
and are made accessible for examination or repairs by means 
of swing-bolt covers on the valve-pots. The duplex valve- 
movement being positive, the pump is always ready to start, 
and when running there is an entire absence of concussive 
action ; it is, therefore, well fitted to withstand the rough usage 
to which sinking-pumps are subjected. 

Single direct-acting mine-pumps occupy less room 
in a mine than a duplex pump of the same capacity, but the 
delivery from a single pump is at times so faulty that a very 
large percentage of the steam used is expended in starting 
anew the column of water at each stroke. This fault is due, 
in part, to the construction of the pump, by which an interval 
occurs at the end of each stroke, during which no water is 
being delivered, the flow is suspended for the time, and thus 
permits the water column to come to a state of rest. But the 
fault does not lie wholly with the pump as such, but to neglect 
in the failure to keep the air-chamber of the water-end prop- 
erly charged with air. If this latter detail were properly 
looked after there would be less trouble with pumps and valves 
than has heretofore been the case. 

The capacity of an air-chamber in a single, direct-acting 
mine-pump should never be less than four volumes of the 
pump capacity per stroke. This air-chamber should connect 
directly with the highest point of the delivery-chamber ; it 
should be furnished with a glass water-gauge so that the quan- 
tity of air in the vessel can be determined at a glance. The 
height of the water in the air-chamber should never exceed 
a level due to one-third of its cubic content. A device similar 
to that shown in Fig. 91 can be applied to any pump, and the 
deeper the mine the greater the necessity for its application. 



296 



PUMPING MACHINERY. 



Lubricating Pistons of Mining -Pumps. — The sectional 
elevation, Fig. 198, represents one of the Knowles piston 
mining-pumps, fitted with Simpson's patent lubricating water- 
piston. This device consists of an arrangement wheret; a 
lubricant composed of pitch and tallow is sent from the inside 
of the pump-piston through its rings to the surface of the 
pump-cylinder, thus lubricating the water- 
piston and cylinder in a satisfactory manner. 
The lubricant not only insures the freest 
possible movement of the piston, but soon 
coats the entire inside of the pump and the 
inner surface of the pump-column ; thus 
acting as a preventive against the destruc- 
tive effects of bad mine water. The nature 
of the compound of pitch and tallow secures 
a tight piston. 

Fig. 198. 





The action of this device is as follows : That part of the 
piston-rod which enters the water-end of the pump has 
through its centre a long passage-way, £, which connects the 
small hand-pump A holding the lubricant with the holes C in 
the pump-piston, as shown in the engraving. The holes C are 
drilled in the water-piston at several points, ending under the 
packing-rings D. The packing-rings are made of composition 
copper and tin, and are perforated with small holes to permit 
the compound of pitch and tallow to ooze out and lubricate the 
cylinder and piston. The lubricant is by this little hand-pump 
forced through the hollow piston-rod and the holes in the 



MINING-PUMPS. 297 

water-piston, thus filling them and setting up the rings in the 
water-piston. When the lubricant is pumped up solid, cock 
E is closed to retain the pressure. In the action of the pump 
a small amount of pitch and tallow oozes out through the 
holes of the packing-rings, lubricating the cylinder and pro- 
ducing the benefits above named. It is only necessary to 
charge the pump with this lubricant about every eight hours. 

Duplex mine-pumps are steadily growing in favor, be- 
cause the duplex valve-movement is particularly well suited 
to handling water at high pressures. The advantages of this 
valve-movement have already been set forth in the chapter on 
hydraulic-pressure pumps, and need not, therefore, be repeated 
here. 

Pumps of this type are always placed at or near the bottom 
of the mine, and no difficulty is had in making the delivery 
in a single lift, wholly irrespective of the depth of the mine. 

Air-chambers are not usually supplied duplex mine- pumps ; 
effective and quiet working having always accompanied the 
practical operation of pumps of this type, it was believed that 
the addition of an air-vessel was unnecessary. This is true 
in part, but the duplex action is not wholly continuous, or 
perhaps a better way to put it is that the pressure in the de- 
livery-pipe is not absolutely uniform, but it is more nearly so 
than in any other type of pump now employed in mining 
operations. The addition of an air-chamber, together with 
an automatic charging device, as shown in Fig. 102, will fully 
meet all the conditions of this exacting service. 

The superiority of the duplex movement was strikingly ex- 
hibited in the development of the pipe-line system of the 
National Transit Company, the service being analogous to 
mine-pumping except as to material. When single direct- 
acting engines were used the jarring effect produced by their 
irregular delivery was very destructive on the pipes and 
fittings, causing leakage, and was altogether a constant source 
of expense in the maintenance of the pipes, to say nothing 
of the losses occasioned by the delay in making oil deliveries.* 



298 PUMPLXG MACHINERY. 

The substitution of duplex for single pumping engines cor- 
rected at once this troublesome detail in the pipe-line business. 
A 12" X 48" duplex pumping engine was built by Worth- 
ington for the National Transit Company some six years ago, 
which has ever since its erection been at work, continuous y 
delivering 25,000 barrels of oil (50 gallons) in 24 hours at a 
pressure of 1500 pounds per square inch, pumping the oil over 
a mountain of a height corresponding to the above pressure. 
So general is the acknowledged superiority of this type of 
pumping engine for mining operations over the single direct- 
acting pump, that many firms whose reputation and success 
were wholly built up in the single pump business are now 
supplying their patrons with pumps having duplex steam-ends, 
either simple or compound. 

A piston-punip with, gun-metal lining, such as shown 
in Fig. 113, is often used in mines where the depth does not 
exceed two hundred feet and the water is not acid. The 
fibrous packing can be readily renewed whenever necessary. 
Removable gun-metal linings are commonly arranged so that 
they can be partially turned in the water-cylinder to present 
a new or uneven surface underneath the piston. As the bolt- 
holes are spaced on either three or four divisions of the cir- 
cumference, a corresponding new surface may be brought 
under the piston until it is so completely worn as to need re- 
newal, in which case the substitution of a new lining for the 
one worn out can be accomplished in a few minutes. 

Piston-pumps occupy less space in a mine than plunger- 
pumps of the same capacity. If the water is not bad, the 
pump may be of the same general construction as for any 
other pumping service for which a piston-pump would be se- 
lected. It is a wise precaution, however, to have the pump 
brass-fitted throughout ; it adds but little to the cost and is 
well worth the difference. 

Piston-pumps for acid water should have the water- 
ends made up of sections, any one of which may be easily 



MINING-PUMPS. 



299 



detached from the assembled water-end and replaced by a new 
one, in case such renewal should become necessary through 
the corrosive action of the mine water. Fig. 199 represents 
partly in section and partly in elevation one side of a j" X 12" 
duplex water-end, from designs by the writer. The suction- 
pipe underneath is made in two pieces, with a flanged joint in 
the centre ; these two castings are in all respects alike; they ex- 



Fjg. 199. 




1 f 




tend across the pump similar to those in Fig. 201. There are 
four water-cylinders precisely alike. The working barrel of 
the pump is made of gun-metal, and fits into an opening, as 
shown in the drawing ; the flange included in the gun-metal 
barrel is faced and drilled similarly to those of the two water- 
cylinders to which it is applied, through-going bolts securing 



300 PUMPING MACHINERY. 



all together. The valve-seat is shown in elevation in the 
above drawing ; a section of a similar valve-seat is shown in 
Fig. 200. The width of the bottom flange is only sufficient 
to make a good joint. It will be seen that the water-cylinders, 
suction- and delivery-pipes are simply faced castings, held 
together by through-going bolts. 

Centrally-packed plunger-pumps, similar in general 
design to the 8" X i2 /r duplex shown in Fig. 200, are largely 
used in anthracite coal-mines. The water-cylinders are con- 
structed with special reference to pumping acid water. The 
shape is made up of curved surfaces as far as practicable. 
There is no fitting to these chambers other than the facing 
and drilling of the flanges, and the boring of the stuffing- 
box; the interior surface or skin of the casting not being dis- 
turbed offers a better resistance against the action of bad 
water than such parts as have had this surface removed. 

The plungers are made of cast iron, working through a 
stuffing-box included in the water- cylinder casting. These 
stuffing-boxes and glands are sometimes lined with gun-metal 
bushings, as shown in Fig. 37, but not as a general practice. 
The plunger is always kept well lubricated, which greatly 
retards the corrosive action of the w 7 ater upon it. This lubri- 
cant also covers the interior surfaces of the gland and the 
bored guide at the bottom of the stuffing-box, so that corro- 
sion proceeds less rapidly there than elsewhere in the cylinder. 
In this design the plunger is driven by a rod passing through 
a stuffing-box in the inside head, as must be the case in cen- 
trally-packed pumps. 

This rod should be of some copper and tin composition, and 
never of Muntz-metal. The writer has used Tobin and phos- 
phor-bronze with satisfactory results. This gland and stuffing- 
box should be fitted with gun-metal bushings as shown in 

Fig- 37. 

The valves are usually one single rubber disk for plungers 

up to 12 inches diameter, and it is this diameter which usually 

fixes that of the valve, both being alike. The valve-seats being 



MINING-PUMPS. 
Fig. 200. 



301 




Fig. 201. 



made of hard gun-metal will outlast several water-ends ; the 
flange by which a seat is held in place need not be wider 
than will make a 
safe joint. The de- 
livery-valve cham- 
ber is of a form well 
calculated to resist 
the action of the 
current of water 
passing through it 
to the central deliv- 
ery-pipe shown in 
the end elevation, 
Fig. 201. 

A duplex cen- 
trally -packed 
water-end for a 15" 
X 36" mine-pump, 
from designs by the 
author, are shown in Figs. 202 and 203. It does not differ 

26 




302 



MPING MACHINERY. 




materially from the 
z :z:.z us: iesrrizti 
ex :ept in the feet of 
its having a gun- 
metal valve-plate fit- 
ted with as many 
small valves of the 
design shown in 
Y:~ ':: z~ the ph.te 
will contain. 7::e 
diameter of this plate 
can usually be made 
to accommodate 
from 60 to 75 per 
cent, of plunger area, 
through valve-seats 
33^ to 4 inches in 
eis. meter, without 
enlarging the water- 
chamber to an un- 
reasonable propor- 
tion. By reason of 
the uncertain de- 
mands upon mine- 
pumps it is recom- 
mended that for 
strokes of 18 to 36 
inches the combined 
area of valve open- 
ings be not less than 
60 per cent, for the 
shorter stroke, and 
from 75 to 100 per 
cent for the long 
stroke, as high 
plu nger speed 
= h : .:.- al'-vays be 



M/X/Xu-rCMPS. 



303 



accompanied by a correspondingly large valve area to get 
the best results. 



An outside-packed 
plunger - pump with 
end stuffing-boxes and 
central diaphragm, as 
shown in Fig. 204, is an 
excellent form of mine- 
pump. The absence 
of a piston-rod work- 
ing through one of 
the water-cylinder ends 
is an advantage. The 
illustration represents 
one side of a 9" X 18" 
water-end ; by reason 
of the projecting 
plungers this pump re- 
quires a greater length 
of floor space for the 
same working stroke 
than those having cen- 
trally-packed plungers. 
The end stuffing-boxes 
are more convenient for 
filling and for adjust- 
ment than when placed 
centrally. Each 
plunger has a cross- 
head included in the 
same casting; wrought- 
iron or steel tie-rods 
connect each pair of 
plungers belonging to 
one side, as shown in 




1— 1 

c 



£ 



the drawing. The valves, valve-seats, valve-chambers, suction- 



304 



PUMPIXG MA CHIXER V. 



and delivery-pipes are substantially the same as for the two 
preceding pumps. Each water-cylinder casting includes two 
plunger-chambers ; the lugs for attaching the steam-end being 
included also, it will be seen that there is much less fitting 
required in this than is called for in centrally-packed water- 
ends ; there is one objection, however, which must not be 
overlooked, and that is, in the event of any portion of a water- 
cylinder of this design being sufficiently affected by bad water 
as to require renewal, a complete water-cylinder must be 
furnished. 

A compound mine-pump by the Buffalo Steam-Pump Com- 
pany is shown in perspective view in Fig. 205, a side eleva- 



Fig. 205. 




tion in Fig. 206, and an end elevation in Fig. 207. The lat- 
ter two illustrations are sufficiently sectioned to show the 
arrangement of plunger, pot-valve chamber, suction- and 
delivery-valves. 

The high-pressure steam-cylinders of the pump here shown 
are 12 inches diameter; low-pressure cylinders, 22 inches 
diameter; stroke, 18 inches; the plungers are 7 inches diam- 
eter. The rated capacity is 300 to 350 gallons per minute, 
delivered 600 feet above the station with a steam-pressure of 
65 pounds in the initial steam-chest. The plungers are tied 
together with steel tie-rods coupled into cast-steel cross-heads. 
The plungers are carried through bronze-lined stuffing-box 
glands. The water passages are 50 per cent, of the plunger 



MINING-PUMPS. 



305 



area. Each valve-chamber contains three valves of a size that 
also equals 50 per cent, of the plunger area ; both suction- and 
discharge-valves are overhead, so that the plungers are always 
water-packed. The caps of the valve-chambers are held by 
swing-bolts. The pump is supplied through a 7-inch suction- 
pipe, and the discharge is driven 
through a 6-inch column. This 
pump was furnished with an im- 
proved single air-pump and con- 
denser designed for the most 
severe duty. The valves of the 
steam-cylinder are of the ordi- 
nary plain slide type, and ar- 
ranged to run by the ordinary 
duplex movement already de- 
scribed. 

A Knowles compound con- 
densing duplex plunger-pump, 
illustrated in Fig. 208, is from a 
drawing representing the 800- 
foot station of a mine, with the 
pumping engine in place and the 
sinking-pump in position below 
the station. This pump has a 
capacity of 1000 gallons of water 
per minute. The water-end is 
fitted with pot-valve chambers 
similar to those described in 
the chapter on hydraulic-press- 
ure pumps. This pump is 
arranged to draw its supply from 
the sump located underneath the 
engine, one or more sinking-pumps raising the water from 
a lower level. From this same tank the condensing appa- 
ratus draws its supply of injection water necessary for con- 
densing the exhaust steam as it issues from the low-press- 
ure cylinder. The water from the hot-well delivery of the 

26* 




u 



3°6 



PUMPING MACHINERY. 



condensing apparatus flows back into the sump from which it 
was taken, an arrangement of piping making this delivery 
near to the main pump-suction, so that the hot-well discharge 
is at once taken up by the main suction instead of communi- 
cating its heat to the whole body of water ; by this means a 
large volume of water is available for condensation which has 
received no heat from the hot-well discharge. 

The engraving shows a float in the sump ; this float oper- 
ates a balanced throttle-valve on the steam supply-pipe. The 
movement of this float, up or down, regulates the speed of 

Fig. 207. 




the pumping engine, and will stop the engine automatically 
should the sump be emptied of water. 

In deepening the shaft the sinking-pump is lowered at in- 
tervals as the excavating progresses. The water at the 
bottom of the shaft is taken by the sinking-pump and deliv- 
ered to the tank or sump that supplies the pumping engine in 
the station. A single steam-pipe down the shaft supplies 
both the pumping engine and sinking-pump. The exhaust 
steam from the pumping engine, as before explained, is con- 
densed by the independent air-pump and jet-condenser. The 



MINING- PUMPS. 



307 



exhaust steam from the sinking-pump, however, is usually- 
carried to the sump or into a special connection arranged on 



Fig. 208. 




the suction-nozzle of the sinking-pump. 
This connection is a neat and inexpensive 
condensing arrangement (not shown in the 
cut) and does away with the exhaust steam- 
pipe in the shaft. With a pumping-plant 
similar to that described, mines can be 
sunk to any depth desired or flooded mines 
recovered with the greatest facility and 
security. 

The location of the sump does not 
always fix that of the pumping engine in 
a mine. The former must be placed 
wherever the conditions of the mine re- 
quire it, and this may not be the best loca- 
tion for the pump, which latter should be located not more 
than 20 feet above the bottom of the sump; and as for the 



308 PUMPING MACHINERY. 

length of the suction-pipe, it is well understood that it should 
be as short as possible. This is a detail in mine engineering 
which we cannot enter into here, but the main pumping 
engine, if more than one is required, ought to be placed as 
near the shaft as possible, and if water has to be pumped 
from several distant points, and perhaps at greatly varying 
levels, small, low-service pumps may advantageously be used 
at any convenient place in the mine, the combined deliveries 
of these pumps being into a sump at a convenient level for 
the main engine ; an arrangement such as that shown in Fig. 
208, reproduced from Knowles's catalogue, will make our 
meaning clear. 

Lining a Mine-Pump with Gun-Metal. — The experi- 
ment has been tried of lining pump-barrels and other interior 
portions of mine-pumps with gun-metal, but it has proved a 
costly thing to do. The intricate details of a pump interior 
prevents lining the entire surface with gun-metal. The only 
practical method by w r hich it can be done is to have all por- 
tions cylindrical, so that the fitting would be reduced to the 
simple operations of boring and turning, and then forcing 
them in place. By the time all this is accomplished the cost 
will fully reach that of a properly-designed water-end con- 
structed wholly of gun-metal. 

Lining a mine-pump with wood is better and cheaper 
than with gun-metal. The pump details must have been pre- 
viously arranged with reference to the insertion of the wood 
lining. Fig. 209 represents a water-cylinder of a horizontal 
plunger-pump with the wood lining in place. The staves are 
of soft pine, machine-dressed radially and to the outer and 
inner curves, suited to their respective diameters ; they are cut 
to exact length and arranged in place. Two of the staves 
are then bevelled to admit a third stave between them, also 
bevelled, and which shall act as a wedge ; this middle stave is. 
then driven home with a maul ; all the staves will now be firmly 
fixed in their places in the interior of the cylinder. Any 



MINING- PUMPS. 



309 



openings into this cylinder may be lined in the same manner, 
care being taken that the inner ends of such staves closely fit 
the curvature of the main staves ; after these are securely 
wedged in place the opening may then be cut through into 
the working-barrel. A gun-metal bushing is shown inserted 



Fig. 209. 




in the bottom of the stuffing-box, through which a cast-iron 
plunger works. 

A valve-chamber, shown in Fig. 210, is similarly lined with 
wood. It will be observed that this interior is an inverted 
frustrum or a cone with a cylindrical intersection. The inser- 

Fig. 210. 




tion of this lining is not so simple a matter as that of a plain 
cylinder, because each stave requires to be fitted to the two 
top and bottom diameters of the valve-chambers. By making 
a wooden templet, having the proper curves and angles accu- 
rately representing one stave, duplicates can be quickly made 



3io 



PUMPING MACHINERY. 



Fig. 211. 



by a wood-worker, each piece exactly fitting into its place. 
Three staves must be fitted for wedging, as in the preceding 
paragraph. After the conical portion has been lined, the cylin- 
drical intersection can then be 
fitted, after which the branch 
opening may be cut through. 
This chamber is fitted with a 
gun-metal lining below the 
valve-seat. The valve-seat is 
inserted on a taper, and extends 
down, forming a lining to pro- 
tect the metal at the top of the 
bushing. It will be seen that 
this chamber is very thor- 
oughly protected. 

An air-chamber with wood 
lining is shown in sectional 
elevation in Fig. 211. Only 
that portion is protected that comes in contact with the water. 
The duplex water-end, Fig. 212, is lined throughout with 
wood, as shown in the preceding illustrations, and in end ele- 
vation in Fig. 213. This pump is fitted with plungers 12 inches 
diameter by 48 inches stroke ; it is located in an anthracite 
coal-mine nearly 1000 feet deep. The whole design is good, 
and may be said to fairly represent the best modern design and 
construction, except in two points, about which engineers are 
not fully agreed : one, in regard to a centrally-packed plunger, 
as against end-plungers ; and the other, in the employment of 
one large valve instead of several smaller ones. The thick- 
ness of metal in this water-end subject to pressure is two 
inches; the wood lining one inch thick. The valves are 15 
inches diameter and 1 j£ inches thick. No air-chambers are 
provided except the ones over each delivery valve-chamber. 




The Cornish pumping engine was among the first 
pumps used in the anthracite coal regions of Pennsylvania. 
The late Howell Green, whose experience with mining-pumps 



M/XLXG-PUMPS. 



3*1 



AAA 




P 
to 



3 

to 



312 FUMPING MACHINERY. 

was both varied and extensive, was of the opinion that " if 
the working-barrel was made of hard iron and the length of 
rod nicely adjusted so that the leather would come slightly- 
above the bore in the upstroke, and if the water was clean and 
not acid, and the lift not too heavy — then, it is still the best 
mining-pump ever made." This view is not now entertained 
by mining engineers, and the types of pumping engines al- 
ready described and illustrated in this chapter are, for many 
reasons, to be preferred. 

That type of pumping engine known as the Cornish may 
be described as a single-acting, high-pressure, expansive con- 
densing engine, working single-acting pumps through the 
medium of a beam. Cornish pumps are usually of the 
plunger pattern, the plungers being loaded with iron weights 
sufficient to counterpoise the pressure of the water column. 
The engine may be considered as consisting of two parts ; the 
power of the engine is used to lift the loaded plunger, after 
which the steam-engine part of the machine is detached and 
the weighted plunger is allowed to descend by gravity at a 
speed depending on the quantity of engine-power in action 
and the rate at which the water is beino- drawn awav. The 
'chamber of the pump becomes filled when the plunger is raised, 
and the act of inhalinsr the full charge through the suction- 
valve is a portion of the work which the steam has to perform, 
and a portion also much subject to variation. 

The speed of the engine is regulated by an adjustable cata- 
ract; the exhaust-valve first and then the steam-valve are 
thrown open by treadle-weights, as soon as the catches are 
detached by the cataract. The valves are closed by tappets 
on a plug-rod, first the steam-valve and then the exhaust- 
valve, the former at a period of the stroke varying in practice 
between one-third and one-fifth from the commencement, and 
the latter at the end of the stroke. 

In engines working on this principle, as also in all recipro- 
cating engines pumping without cranks, there is nothing to 
limit the strokes of the engine to any exact length. It is 
necessary, therefore, that bumpers or catch-pieces be provided 



MINING-PUMPS. 3 1 3 

to restrain the engine at both ends from an undue length of 
stroke; and thick plates of india-rubber under hard-wood 
blocks are now used for this purpose in place of the spring 
beams formerly employed. An engine thus arranged; work- 
ing alone, lifting water from one fixed level to another, would 
work continuously with one length of stroke and at one speed, 
at whatever it might be set. 

The single-acting engine on the Cornish principle was 
thought to have some advantages over a pumping engine with 
crank and fly-wheel, in the fact that no power is required in 
the Cornish engine for keeping gearing in motion at each end 
of the stroke ; a certain amount of percussion action is in- 
deed necessary to overcome the inertia of the engine at the 
beginning of the stroke ; but, on the other hand, the whole 
engine is brought to a dead stand at the end of every stroke 
by the whole effective power being completely absorbed in the 
work done in pumping. 

The Jeanesville Mine-Pump. — The compound duplex 
mine-pump illustrated in Fig. 214 is from designs by Mr. 
Vernon H. Rood, and constructed by the Jeanesville Iron- 
Works, Jeanesville, Pa. It represents their standard design 
of compound condensing, duplex, outside-packed plunger 
mine-pump, designed especially for the anthracite and bitumi- 
nous coal-mines of Pennsylvania. 

The pump selected for illustration is one having — 

High-pressure cylinders, 25 inches diameter. 

Low-pressure cylinders, 42 inches diameter. 

Pump-plungers, 14 inches diameter. 

All of 48 inches stroke. 

Its rated capacity is 2000 gallons of water per minute 
against a head of 425 feet. 

The steam-end shown in sectional elevation in Fig. 215 is 
of the ordinary duplex form. One rod is common to both 
pistons, and passes through stuffing-boxes in the high- and 
low-pressure cylinder-heads. The valve-faces of both cylin- 
ders are in the same plane, the valves being operated by a 
o 27 



l-l 
CM 

6 




314 



MINING- PUMPS. 



3*5 




3 



J ^ 



3io 



PUMPING MACHINERY. 



Fig. 216. 




T VI 



driving mechanism similar to that shown in Fig. 178. The 
dash-relief valves are fitted to the high-pressure cylinder 
only. This detail is similar to that of Fig. 173. An end 
elevation of the steam-cylinders is shown in Fig. 216. The 

customary practice 
on all large com- 
pound duplex 
steam-ends in hav- 
ing one main and 
two auxiliary throt- 
tle-valves is here 
shown. The object 
of the auxiliary 
throttle-valves is to 
give each engine a 
separate adjust- 
ment should one 
side appear to work 
a little slower than 
the other ; in start- 
ing and stopping 
the engines the 
upper or main valve 
only is used, the auxiliary valves not being disturbed in their 
adjustment. This steam-end, in common with the general 
practice in mining-pumps, is not steam-jacketed, but when in 
position in the mine and thoroughly tested, the cylinders and 
chests are covered with a non-conducting material, such as 
magnesia, which can be laid on with a trowel. This prevents 
radiation and a protection against the water in a " drowned- 
out" mine. The steam-ends of mine-pumps are generally 
made of unusual strength, with extra large wearing surfaces 
and connections to withstand the continuous and severe duty 
they are called upon to perform in times of high water, or 
possibly in a " drowned-out" mine, when it will be forced to 
work submerged to a depth of from 10 to 60 feet, in which 
case lubrication or any other care is impossible. 




MINING-PUMPS. 

t 



317 






The water-end is shown in 
partial sectional elevation in 
Fig. 217. It consists of four 
cylinders,or working-barrels, 
as they are generally called, 
bolted together in pairs, with 
a recessed blank flange be- 
tween them; these working- 
barrels rest on two cross- 
feet, which serve to tie the 
whole four together as if 
they were one casting. To 
reduce the number of spare 
working-barrels necessary to 
keep on hand, and also to 
facilitate their removal when 
worn out, the bosses for 
receiving the tie-rods which 
connect the pump to the 
steam-cylinders are not cast 
to the water-cylinder, but to 
a strongly-bracketed flange, 
which is bored and faced to 
fit over the outside cf the 
stuffing-box and against a 
flange cast on the working- 
barrel from 8 inches to 10 
inches from its end, as shown 
in the drawing. 

These pumps, in accord- 
ance with the best modern 
practice, are built to gauges, 
so that only two spare work- 
ing-barrels are required for 
a whole pump, the left front 
being exactly the same as 
the right back, and vice 



77! 



.A 



rOi 



1 




318 PUMPING MACHINERY. 

versa. This arrangement also serves to preserve the align- 
ment of pump, as this tie-rod flange, as it is called, being a 
separate casting from the working-barrel, and not exposed to 
the action of the acid water, will last as long as the steam- 
end, so that in renewing a front or inside working-barrel it 
is only necessary to place it in position and draw up the bolts 
to insure the pump being in perfect line. To still further 
facilitate the renewal of inside working-barrels, the tie-rods are 
turned to the same size as that portion which goes through the 
bosses on the tie-rod flange ; cast-iron split clamps or collars, 
shown in the drawing, are bolted thereon of sufficient length 
to allow of the tie-rod flange being drawn towards the steam- 
end far enough to clear the working-barrel, which can then be 
removed by lateral movement without disturbing the steam- 
end. 

The pump has four single-acting, outside-packed plungers 
connected in pairs by two steel parallel rods coupled to strong 
cast-iron cross-heads, which, in turn, are fastened to plungers 
by T" nea ded bolts let into cored recesses in the plungers. 
The plungers are supported on the outboard end by adjust- 
able shoes or gibs on the bottom of each cross-head. These 
run in slides, as shown. The writer considers this outside 
form of connection the best, even for very moderate lifts, in 
mine-work, as it does away with the necessity of bronze rods 
and connections, which are always a source of more or less 
trouble and uncertainty when used in acid or gritty water. 
The plungers are made of hard, close-grained iron, which 
will, if properly packed and lubricated, last fully as long as 
brass ones. The plunger gland-bolts have f"-h ea ds, and are 
let into cored recesses on the outside of the stuffing-box, the 
same as the bolts securing the plungers to the cross-heads. 
There are no studs whatever in the water-end. 

The water-end has 16 valve-chambers with a single valve 
in each. A sectional elevation of the valve-chamber is shown 
in the longitudinal section, Fig. 217, and in the end elevation, 
Fig. 218. 

The use of a single large valve to each chamber instead of 



MINING- PUMPS. 



319 



a number of small ones, Mr. Rood thinks, has many advan- 
tages when applied to mine-work. It may be well to state 
that the mine water in the anthracite coal-fields not only 
attacks iron but brass and phosphor-bronze as well, so that 
the life of a valve-seating is at best a limited one. This fact 
alone makes it imperative that pump-valves for mines be 
simple, strong, easily examined, and quickly replaced. It 
must be admitted that 8 or at the most 16 large valves are 

Fig. 218. 




much easier kept in repair, and can be removed much more 
rapidly than from 50 to 100 small ones. The several details, 
such as valve-stems, springs, etc., are always much larger and 
stronger for large valves, and are better able to withstand the 
over-effort of an energetic man pulling on a long wrench ; 
those who have had small valve-stems twisted off in this man- 
ner with the water gaining on the pumps will fully appreciate 
the importance of this detail. An enlarged illustration of 
the valve and its seat is shown in plan and sectional elevation 
in Fig. 219. The valve-seat is held in place by a flanged joint 
between the valve-chamber and the pump or pipe-flange under- 
neath. The valve is made of india-rubber with a gun-metal 
cap ; a phosphor-bronze spring and bolt completes the arrange- 
ment as shown. 

While 8 chambers and valves would have answered as 
well as the 16 small ones, so far as the proper and smooth 



320 



PUMPING MACHINERY. 



working of pump is concerned, the desirability of keeping the 

chambers as small as possible for ease in handling in case of 

renewal, etc., determined in this case the use of the smaller 

pattern. 

Fig. 219. 




This form of valve-chamber, while differing radically from 
the usual style, has after a thorough trial proved itself so well 
fitted for the work as regards durability, etc., that they have 



MINING- PUMPS. 3 2 1 

adopted it as a standard for their larger permanent station 
mine-pumps, as combining the greatest strength with the least 
weight of metal, the largest clearance around the periphery 
of the valve without any waste room elsewhere, and finally as 
costing very little to fit up and consequently not expensive to 
renew. 

The question of room around the periphery of a valve is 
an important one in mine-pumps, as the water, in most cases 
being acid and carrying large quantities of fine coal and grit, 
if allowed to impinge against the walls of a chamber as it 
rushes out from under the valve, will cut the metal away so 
rapidly as to ruin the chamber in a short time. In the cham- 
ber illustrated it will be noticed that in addition to giving an 
extra amount of room at this point, its shape is such as to 
turn the course of the water upwards and inwards instead of 
against the walls. It is to this feature that is attributed the 
long life of this style of chamber, which invariably outlasts 
all the other parts of the water-end. 

The method of securing the seatings between flanges of a 
chamber and the water-cylinder, while not new, is particularly 
adapted to mine-pumps, as it admits of very easy and quick 
renewals, there being no fits to make in the chamber, and it 
has the further advantage that no leak past the seat can occur 
without being instantly detected and stopped. 

Steam-Pipes for Collieries. — An excellent paper, pre- 
pared by Mr. E F. C. Davis, and included in Vol. XL, " Trans- 
actions of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers," 
is here reproduced : 

" The most common and the cheapest method of carrying 
steam, taking the world at large, is probably through wrought- 
iron ' gas-pipe' joined by the taper-thread, screwed into 
sockets or ferules. 

" This answers admirably for small pipes, and even for com- 
paratively large pipes where the conditions are favorable for 
screwing up the joints, and where the threads are not sub- 
jected to any serious corrosive action. Many of the steam- 



322 PUMPING MACHINERY. 

pipe lines in the anthracite coal-regions, however, run for great 
distances underground, through contracted slopes and head- 
ings where it is almost impossible to make the screwed joint. 
In the screwed socket-joint there is always some space be- 
tween the ends of the pipes, and the condensed steam from 
the best available feed-water is so corrosive that a cutting or 
furrowing action takes place between the ends of the pipes 
and the ferule, which sooner or later causes leakage. It is 
then impossible to tighten up these screwed joints without 
screwing up the whole pipe-line. 

" Some of these difficulties are avoided by the use of 
'flange-unions.' With these the pipe-line can be more con- 
veniently put together underground, and in the event of a 
leaky thread the flange can be screwed on tighter, or a de- 
fective pipe can readily be replaced by a new one of the 
same length. But in the ordinary flange-union there is a space 
between the ends of the pipes, and the above-mentioned cor- 
rosive action is so destructive to the threads that cast-iron 
pipes have generally been considered necessary for reliable 
and durable steam-pipe lines ; though the first cost is about 
double that of wrought-iron pipe. 

" In view of the foregoing, the Philadelphia and Reading 
Coal and Iron Company has adopted the "flange-joint shown 
in annexed cut for all colliery steam-pipes. These flanges are 
screwed tightly on the pipe, — the pipe carried in a steady rest, 
— and the end of pipe and flange faced off flush with each 
other. The lugs are at the same time bored out, and the pro- 
jection turned off concentric with the bore of the pipe. This 
insures perfect continuity in the pipes, and the lugs also centre 
the gum-joint rings accurately, so that a gum-joint is obtained 
between the abutting ends of the wrought-iron pipes. The 
continuity of the bore of the pipe insures a free flow of steam 
and condensed water, so that all liability to furrowing at the 
joints is avoided and the gum-joint formed between the ends 
of the wrought-iron pipes protects the thread from all danger 
of corrosion. If an odd length of pipe needs to be made at 
a colliery, the pipe, if not over four inches, can be threaded 



MINING-PUMPS. 



323 



with a hand-stock and die, and a finished flange screwed on 
until the pipe projects through. The pipe must then be filed 
off flush with face of flange. 

" In moulding these flanges it is best to have the pat- 
tern arranged to leave its own cores. This insures accu- 

Fig. 220. 




V 

p. 




1— 


v s 

5 


O 
B 

O 


tn 




1/1 

O 
E 




u 
u 

is 

&3° 


O 

c c 


u 

J=£ 

a w 


c/i 

bo 

3 

O 


bb 

3 



-3 


3 
h-1 

O 




(/> 

-*i-l 


in 
(/> 
a) 

15 bJO 


<u 
a, 

s 



,3 


4) 

N 

(73 







V 

c/3 


.a -a 


H 




O 

52! 


bO 
3 
V 

1-1 


T3 


2 

H 




bo 
3 


A. 


B. 




c. 


D. 


E. 


F. 


G. 




H. 


J- 


K. 


L. 






























Feet. 


V 


1%" 


4 


6" 


% n 


5" 


%" 


54" 


4 


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%" 


54" 


itf" 


16 


w 


%y," 


4 


63^" 


H" 


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H" 


w 


4 


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1 14 


16 


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7 l / 2 " 


% n 


6" 


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54" 


4 


%" 


H" 


54" 


i$" 


16 


s" 


10W' 


4 


8fc" 


%" 


7" 


7 /a" 


54" 


4 


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Ya" 


54" 


*w 


16 


6" 


12" 


6 


10" 


%" 


8" 


1" 


54" 


4 


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V/' 


54" 


1 54" 


20 


7" 


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11" 


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q" 


1" 


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34" 


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xW 


20 


8" 


14" 


6 


12 


w 


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54" 


6 


w 


1" 


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iV," 


20 


10" 


I6#" 


8 


H" 


1" 


12" 


ijl* 


¥2" 


6 


%" 


1" 


^ 8 " 


*%" 


20 



Pipe must be screwed through flange so as to be steam-tight, and flange and end of pipe 
faced off flush at one operation. 



racy in the positions of the bolt-holes and the large central 
hole, relative to each other and to the other parts of the 
flange. 

" Several thousand feet of steam-pipe fitted with these 
flanges have been put in service, and have all proved perfectly 
satisfactory." 



324 



PUMPING MACHINERY. 



Fig. 221. 




Water-pipe for mines should be of hard cast iron made 
in uniform lengths, so that in the event of having to replace 

a section of pipe it can 
be easily done, and 
without having to take 
the time necessary to 
face it off to an exact 
length. The pipes for 
the anthracite coal- 
mines of this State are 
generally cast with 
what corresponds to a 
chipping-piece in ordi- 
nary work, this projec- 
tion being one-fourth of an inch above the body of the flange, 
by one and a half inches wide. This chipping-piece is cast 
against a cast-iron chill, thereby insuring a smooth and true 
face for making a joint. The chill is so arranged as to include 
the bolt-hole cores for the flanges, so that the pipes require no 
machine-work whatever. Fig. 221 represents a section of a 

joint made up. For 
column or delivery- 
pipes a wrought-iron 
welded ring }( X 1 
inch iron is made with 
an inside diameter half 
an inch larger than the 
bore of the pipe ; this 
ring is spirally wound 
with strips of cotton 
cloth ij4 inches wide, 
previously boiled in 
coal-tar until thor- 
oughly saturated. For making slight bends in a pipe-line, a 
bevelled ring of either wrought or cast iron similarly wrapped 
as above is substituted for the ring having parallel sides. (See 
Fig 222.) 



Fig. 222. 




ROTARY PUMPS. 



325 



CHAPTER XV. 



ROTARY PUMPS. 



Fig. 223. 



Rotary motions were, as Ewbank suggests, favorite ones 
with ancient philosophers ; they considered a circle as the 
most perfect of all figures, and erroneously concluded that a 
body in motion would naturally revolve in one. In later 
times, as the problem of pump design began to press itself 
upon the attention of mechanics, it was a favorite one with 
many to convert the intermittent action of the pump-piston 
into a continuous circular movement, that the power expended 
in constantly bringing all the 
water in the cylinder and suc- 
tion-pipe alternately to a state of 
rest and motion was saved, be- 
cause the liquid would be kept 
in constant motion in passing 
through the pump. 

One of the oldest and at the 
same time one of the best rotary 
pumps is shown in Fig. 223. No 
precise date can be assigned for 
its invention, but it existed in its 
present form probably early in 
the seventeenth century. Two 
cog-wheels, the teeth of which 
are fitted to work accurately into 

each other, are enclosed in an elliptical case. The sides of these 
wheels turn close to those of the case, so that water cannot 
enter between them. The axle of one of the wheels is con- 

28 




: pli .:-:. : - - i : 

tinued throur ~ - rast a: " : tht : t>er. r r raat't 

"~7iigHb©x: caff collar «aff Oeatfij e i A crank 5s 

:ied to the end to tmam St, send a; e wHarf mowaiscs St 

necessarily turns the other ; l3a£ dirt : " . ■' " eir motions 

being indicate: : snows 7. be waftes flsfl e e e ti&e Iks'WQr 

part of the : - ; - : : 

anc as 3 : race : : : etna - t sbsi ttlbe wiaeels in cor.se rjeaane <Eff 

the cogs being there always in c - - . - ■ - 

in the ::n g or forcing-: pe Tat tatta at z 

both a sucking and a forcing one, as indeec al 
are. 

Rotary puna: be c ic e : at: : : a - :: a: ; 

forms of and methods of work ta<t : ar a parrs 

tha: .:. sad accoraa ; t: tat va:a:aa raaoei : 

which the bidmr -..:-. : I; that receive? the 

force I e "water whet . :: ae_.et farvtart : tat ansta: : 
also pt: 7 the liqni d from befng swept hy the taf1~er trrrtiiigty 
round . t __; ; it: or odterk: : 

ttibe discharging-: . pe In the ■ : al a t 

- ntial differences in r : ta n : - ■ : In seame liae fcntmenrs 

are movable piece : .aife fco dfaaw hack to allow tibe 

an to pass, whm tffet art ai 
in others the}* are fixed and tie p " hrnraflrihres gjt&z way- 

It is the same with I c ittei the art - at 

Mem: : :-: : : fc - Lit 

son: t r it : n into ic: esse rJI l3ae 

butt 

An c -3tt tffecy anc aoffisy; wsar 

out :a : and are : 7::' .: ::: :: : i 

high efficit = gr: w= 

Tat-- at re- -erect ess t" useful pnrrrps, and ton 
the smaller sizes, at least, art - se; :: : ; f 
the coTintry in manirfacturing anc rat - - - - 

The engraving 7 ; : : _ . i e Afflfiorcvafl arram^ment 

of rotary purr: .- a* matt : -J. - : ■ -. . : ." 

7ving : [ = ton lias foeem -deniramstrated 

experiment and successful gwagflanp foy the 









ROTARY PUMPS. 



327 



most prominent mechanics and manufacturers to be the best 
in use, and of the proper shape to insure the very minimum of 
friction and wear. 

The arrows shown in the FlG - 22 4- 

cut indicate the direction in 
which the cams should be 
run, — i.e., inwardly, or to- 
wards each other at the top 




or discharging orifice. 

They have built and placed 
these pumps for many years, 
claiming they have given 
uniform and unequalled sat- 
isfaction in all their situations 

and uses, while comparatively cheaper and stronger than any 
other first-class rotary. They have heavy cast-steel mandrels, 
and babbit-metal boxes, with two pairs of heavy gears to 
relieve the cams. They discharge a large and constant stream 
without the aid of an air-chamber, can be run at a very high 
rate of speed without injury, and will operate for months at 
a time without cessation, having no packing or valves to be- 
come obstructed or worn out. There is nothing about these 
pumps but metal. They are simple, and all essential parts can 
be got at without trouble. They will not clog in pumping 
thick fluid or matter, and they are made non-freezing when not 
in use. The motion being rotary or circular, the strain upon 
the belt or gear is equal at all points. Their qualities well 
adapt them for establishments, including distilleries and brew- 
eries, for pumping hot liquors ; in oil- and sugar refineries, 
paper-mills, and starch-factories ; in slate-, stone-, and marble- 
mills, where they serve the double purpose of supply and 
freeing the quarries of muddy and gritty water; at railway- 
stations, mines, salt-wells, water-works, and also for wrecking- 
pumps, as they will not become clogged with wet grain, etc. 

Rotary-pump design has engaged the attention of in- 
ventors for many years ; unfortunately, most of them have 



328 PUMPING MACHINERY. 

been more or less badly designed, and in consequence the 
mere use of the word " rotary" in connection with any pump 
seems at the present time a sort of disparagement which, 
according to M. Poillon, the principle does not merit. 

On looking into the cause of this state of things, the mis- 
chief is readily perceived to have arisen from neglect, on the 
part of inventors and makers of rotary pumps, of some very 
simple facts in connection with the subject. In most cases 
the following points have practically been lost sight of: 

1. That water is practically incompressible, and that in a 
liquid mass the pressure and the velocity at different points 
bear an invariable relation to each other. 

2. That in any machine which has attained its regular 
working speed the driving power expended is equal to the 
sum of the useful work done plus the useless resistances 
overcome, and that, when proper care is not taken to prevent 
such a result, the useless work may absorb actually the 
greater part of the power. 

3. That, whatever care be taken in the construction of a 
machine, two metal surfaces cannot be made to rub one upon 
the other in water without occasioning their rapid destruction 
by friction, but that if simply in contiguity without friction 
they will work without injury. 

4. That, as the speed increases, the friction of the work- 
ing parts in a pump very quickly becomes a matter of great 
importance and absorbs a considerable amount of work, 
while, on the contrary, absolute contact between parts in 
motion is a matter of no practical importance, the leakage 
becoming relatively less at higher speeds. 

Hence may be explained the failures attending so many 
designs of rotary pumps, due equally to the want of appre- 
ciation of theory and to neglect of the teachings of practice. 

An examination into the efficiency of many of the rotary 
pumps now in use show that it is very low. The great excess 
of driving-power over useful work done arises from two 
principal causes : 

1. The inertia of the water, or difficulty of putting it into 



ROTARY PUMPS. 



329 






motion again after it has been brought to rest, and the conse- 
quent reduction of the effective pressure. 

2. The necessity of imparting at certain moments a high 
velocity to a considerable mass of water, the production of 
this velocity requiring the expenditure of a great amount of 
power, of which only a small portion is given out again as 
useful effect. 

It is clear that if these two sources of difficulty are got rid 
of, a near approach is made to perfect efficiency ; that is, to 
an equality between the theoretical driving-power required 
and that which is utilized in the work done. 



The G-reindl pump, illustrated in Fig. 225, consists of a 
chamber within which work two cylindrical drums, A and B y 
of equal diameter, running in contact with each other on 

Fig. 225. 




parallel shafts. One of these drums, A } carries two radial 
vanes or blades acting as pistons, which as they revolve enter 
alternately into a recess of epicycloidal section extending 
along the whole length of the other drum, B. The shafts of 

28* 



330 



PUMPING MACHINERY. 



the drums are geared so that the recessed drum, B, makes 
two revolutions to one of the bladed drum, A, thereby en- 
abling the single recess in the quick drum to serve for the 
two blades on the slower. The inlet and outlet passages are 
arranged in such a manner as to present everywhere the same 
sectional area throughout the entire course of the water, in 
order not to impede its movement in any way during its pas- 
sage through the pump. In consequence of the continuous 
motion of the stream of water, any foreign solid substance 
can pass through the pump without occasioning either a 
stoppage or a breakage. The blades of the slower drum 
strike the water without any perceptible shock. Lateral 
pockets in the end-cover plates afford ample space for the 
water to escape through at the moment when the space left 
between the blade and the recess threatens to be insufficient 
for that purpose. 

In rotary pumps, by simply changing the speed of work- 
ing, the actual quantity of water delivered can be varied 
within certain limits without producing any change in the 

proportionate efficiency of the 
pump, whatever its size, an 
advantage which cannot be 



Fig. 226. 




obtained 
pumps. 



with centrifugal 



The Berrenberg rotary 
pump is shown in sectional 
elevation in Fig. 226 ; each 
piston is a circle, from which 
four semicircular sections have 
been cut. In two of the semi- 
circles, opposite each other, 
tubes are bolted through from 
the semicircular spaces left 
vacant. It is so constructed that when the pistons revolve, the 
tubes (or boxes, as they are called) of one piston fit into the 
vacant spaces of the other piston with perfect accuracy ; and 






ROTARY PUMPS. 



331 



the circumferences of the pistons being always in contact with 
each other, it will be seen that there is no time in the course 
of their revolution when there is much chance for leakage. 
In case of wear, it can be made good by removing the tubes 
(or boxes) and putting a few thicknesses of paper packing in 
the seat, or by turning the tubes a little so as to present a 
new surface to the point of contact with the case. The pump 
is double-geared, and has inside and outside bearings ; these 
latter are tapered, so that any wear in the bearings or shaft 
may be taken up and the shafts kept true. 

TABLE XIX. 

EXPERIMENTS ON THE EFFICIENCY OF A 2-INCH BERRENBERG ROTARY PUMP, 
CONDUCTED BY R. A. HALE, HYDRAULIC ENGINEER, APRIL, if ~ 



0) 


ft 

2 

3 
fa 




1 !. * 
fa;£ 


to 

3 

O 




c 


Id 

y 

fa 


m 
'•& 

u . 
y -3 


a 

-a 

D 


T3 ,J 
OJ — 




.2 3 
rt is 

^fa 


E 
"C 
n 
p. 
M 

a 

<— 

i~ 

V 


W 

. 

i> 

3 2 

is 


ft 
u 

ft 

2 

3 

a. 

in 


w 

v v 

( — 3 


y 

hi 

3 
t/) 

0) 

fa 

Im 

O ui 


0) 
(U 

fa 

c 


.2 

ii 
u 

. 

_ u 


c5 g 

•^ y 

O u 

« a 


1/) 

3 

<u 2 

O fa 

• 1 a 


J-, 4-1 
y t/1 

ft .S 

O | 
£ ^fa 



a*- 

2 y 

— -a 
" ^ ~ 

c in G 


s 

= 


> *» 

y ft 


3 . 

_o y 

rt 3 


rC ■CM 

•S3.S 


1° 

gfa 


O 


■So 

ft> 


3 ° 


C T3 


3 ^ © 
y ft£ 


•2=' D ft 
S£ y 


fc 


ti 


O 


K 


ri 


H 


Q 


CJ 


w 


< 


fa 


I 


690 


I20 


7.00 


10.6 


31-49 


■233 


.268 


4.62 


O.96 


.207 


2 


722 


127 


7-03 


25.2 


6536 


.242 


.284 


6.05 


2. II 


•350 


3 


698 


126 


7.04 


21.4 


56.47 


.241 


.282 


5-03 


I,8o 


•359 


4 


697 


124 


7-05 


3i-5 


79.81 


237 


•275 


5.81 


2.49 


.428 


5 


580 


I07 


7.10 


8.65 


27.08 


•215 


•239 


2.36 


o-73 


■3ii 


6 


593 


IO4 


7.10 


24.0 


62.54 


2IO 


.231 


3-43 


1.64 


.478 


7 


583 


99 


7.15 


40.3 


100.24 


203 


.221 


4.88 


251 


.515 


8 


573 


93 


7.20 


55-15 


134.60 


194 


.206 


6.47 


3-14 


.486 


9 


575 


96 


7-25 


4i-5 


103. 11 


200 


.215 


5-°4 


2.51 


•499 


10 


59i 


IOI 


7-33 


27.2 


70.16 


207 


.226 


3-71 


1.80 


.485 


11 


53o 


83 


7-43 


72.9 


I75-83 


180 


.185 


8.61 


3.68 


•427 


12 


478 


86 


7-35 


6-3 


21.90 


I8 5 


.192 


1.76 


0.48 


.270 


13 


479 


81 


7.40 


22.9 


60.30 


177 


,l8o 


2.42 


1 23 


.510 


14 


468 


76 


7.40 


33-i 


83.86 


170 


.170 


3-14 


1.62 


.514 


15 


45i 


70 


7.40 


47-6 


117.36 


161 


.156 


4.01 


2.08 


.518 


16 


462 


69 


7.40 


65.2 


158.00 


159 


•154 


5.98 


2.76 


.462 


*i7 


475 


81 


7.40 


23-5 


61.70 


177 


.l8l 


2.43 


1.27 


.521 



* 3-inch belt in this experiment. 

The power was measured by a Webber dynamometer of 
iohorse-power capacity. The pressures were measured by a 
gauge attached to the discharge-pipe, about seven feet above 



332 PUMPING MACHINERY. 

the level of the water in the tank from which the water was 
taken. 

The water was measured over a rectangular, sharp-crested 
weir, with two end contractions. The length of the weir was 
.763 feet, and the depth was measured by a hook-gauge, and 
quantity of water passing was measured by the formula of 
J. B. Francis, C.E. : Q = 3.33 (L — -^ H) H f , thus giving 
the quantity in cubic feet per second. 

The pulley for the 3-inch belt proving too small to convey 
the power for the range of pressures which it was desired to 
run, the loose and tight pulleys were blocked together, and a 
6-inch belt was used. The accompanying table comprises 
seventeen experiments, divided in three groups of varying 
speeds obtained by shifting the size of the pulleys on the 
counter-shaft ; each group covers a range of various pressures, 
from which can be determined the pressures and speeds to 
give the best efficiency in the working of the pump. The first 
group was run at a much higher speed than the pump was 
intended to run, and a wide range of pressures was not taken. 

The second and third groups were more nearly alike in 
efficiency ; the third one, with the lowest speed, showing the 
best result. 

The varying pressures were produced by partly closing the 
valve to the discharge-pipe, which, in general, decreased the 
amount of water pumped. 



ires in Pounds 
Square Inch. 


per 


Efficiency of Pump = Ratio of Useful Effect to Power 
expended. 

Group 2. Group 3. 


IO. 






•30 




■30 


20. 






.41 




•45 


30- 






■48l Mean, 




.52 ) Mean, 


40. 

50- 
60. 






•5°f -493 
.50 J 
.485 




.515 j -517 
■5i5 J 

.50 


70. 
80. 






•45 

.41 




•455 



It will be seen that, between 30 and 50 pounds pressure, the average effi- 
ciency is .493 with 575 revolutions of the pump, and .516 efficiency with 460 
revolutions per minute, the efficiency falling off above and below that point. 



ROTARY PUMPS. 333 

The above maybe taken as a fair sample of the performance 
of rotary pumps generally, and the few illustrations given will 
suffice our present purpose. To enter upon a description of 
the various designs for rotary pumps would require too much 
space in this publication ; the writer suggests to those in- 
terested in rotary-pump design the perusal of Kennedy's 
translation of Reuleaux's " Kinematics of Machinery." The 
elementary details are systematically classified ; sectional ele- 
vations are given by which any particular construction may 
be quickly identified. 



334 PUMPING MACHINERY. 



CHAPTER XVI. 



CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS. 



A demand exists for a pump with which large volumes of 
water may be quickly handled, such as in tanneries, paper- 
mills, print-works, dry-docks, etc. This water being liable to 
contain chips, bark, and other floating matter, makes it espe- 
cially desirable that the pump be valveless, — a problem for 
which the centrifugal pump offers an almost complete solution. 
The construction of the centrifugal pump is exceedingly 
simple, consisting of a revolving fan having two or more 
blades, either straight or curved, attached to a revolving 
spindle, and fitted in a case or shell so constructed that the 
suction shall enter at the centre of the wheel, and the delivery 
placed tangent to the outer path of the revolving blades. 

The recorded experiments relating to centrifugal 
pumps are few. Among these, two are favorably known to 
the writer, — one by Mr. R. C. Parsons,* England, and the 
other by Mr. W. O. Webber,f Lawrence, Mass, — the first re- 
lating more especially to the theory of centrifugal pumps, and 
the latter to their efficiency as compared with reciprocating 
pumps ; the writer acknowledges his indebtedness to both of 
these experimenters for subject-matter used in this chapter. 

Centrifugal pumps are by no means a modern in- 
vention, the crude idea of which probably dates as far back 
as the middle of the last centurv, when the mathematician 

* Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers. London, 1876. Vol. XLVII. 
f Trans. Am. Soc. Mechanical Engineers. New York. Vols. VII. and IX. 



CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS. 



335 



Euler brought out a primitive form of centrifugal pump, an 
account of which he published in the Proceedings of the 
Academy of Berlin for 1754, but which never came into prac- 
tical use. From that period many rotary and centrifugal 
pumps were invented, principally by French engineers, but 
none of them seemed to have yielded even a reasonably good 
efficiency. The first mention of a centrifugal pump at all to 
be compared with those of the present day is in the year 
1830, when one was erected by Mr. McCarty in the navy- 
yard at New York, and some improvements were patented by 
him in the following year. The next epoch in the history of 
the centrifugal pump is the Exhibition of the year 1851, 
London, when the late Mr. J. G. Appold achieved a great 
success with his pump of trebling the efficiency obtained by 
any other exhibitor. 



The experiments made with Appold's centrifugal 
pump showed that its efficiency mainly depended upon the 
form of the blades of the fan ; and, further, that the best form 
was a curved blade pointing in the opposite direction to that 
in which the fan revolved. These were tried in comparison 
with two other forms. 

TABLE XX. 
appoi.d's centrifugal pump. 





Height 


Discharge 


Revolu- 


Velocity of 


Percentage 




of 


in Gallons 


tions 


Circumfer- 


of Effect 




Lift in 


per 


per 


ence in Feet 


to 




Feet. 


Minute. 


Minute. 


per Minute. 


Power. 


With radial arms . . . 


I8.0 


474 


720 


2262 


24 


With straight inclined 












arms 


18.O 


736 


69O 


2168 


43 


With curved arms . . . 


8.2 


2100 


828 


26DI 


59 


a it 


9.0 


1664 


620 


I948 


65 


a it 


18.8 


1164 


792 


2988 


65 


a a 


I9.4 


1236 


788 


2476 


68 


a a 


27.6 


681 


876 


2751 


46 



From the above table it will be seen that as between radial 
blades and curved blades the increase in efficiency was more 



yy~ 



PUMPING MACHINERY. 



in doubled in favor of the latter ; subseqi 






and more exhaustive ex 
nection with centrifugal ] 
both theoretically and e 
should curve backward, 

era. torn: of the curved 



ts show that nothing in con- 
as been more clearly proved, 
ntally, than that the blades 
ording to Thomson the gen- 
; an element of great impor- 
nce of the arms being 
: the water is driven through the wheel, partly 
F centrifugal force and partly by the oblique 






pressure o: the blades e:t the water. 
of these forces bears to the other v 
pump, ace :r ding to the proportion 
bears bo the height of the lift. Wh 
and the speed great, the water is expe 
considerable rerary ruction imparted 
the resistance to the outward motion 
that the eblique action ch the blades 
ir it a sreed eh ritation 



Tit: 



ratio which each 
ven in the same. 
ied of the oumo 



anv 



I: 



without g 

o: tue fan 



of the water is so small 
is sufficient to expel it 
at all approaching that 



In centrifugal oum 
through the pump with as i 

because the power thus al 
becomes a more :r less hi: 
so much that it is clear no \ 

as t: the best prrpcrtirns 
proportions and best shape 
volving fen. Mr. The m s : 

with many designers of 
soace between the sides c 
to make the are?. :f :u: 



-v 



^ --! :;; 



the water 
" whirling velocity as possible, 
ed is not again given out, and 
.n:e to the d:w. Designs •,■; 
d opinion has yet been reached 
blades, nor yet as to the best 
the case which contains the re- 
cognizes it as a favorite idea 
ifugal pumps to contract the 
fen at the circumference so as 
through the fen uniform, and 



.Mr. Aooue, a r 
crease of duty, 
a detail which 

the -erne exten 



uniform radial motion of the water during the 



through tiu 

er modificati 

,• %^ -w-.,.j 






he effect of this as well 
tested experimentally by 
was productive of no in- 

e :tl ler rand, considers it 
of the pump, but not to 

lades, and says that "the 



CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS. 



337 



old theory which Morin, Appold, and many others held, and 
which is still held in some recent books, — viz., that as long as 
the casing outside the fan is large enough it is immaterial what 
shape it is, — can be proved to be false both by theory and 
experiment." 

The passages throughout the pump must be so pro- 
portioned as to have a gradually increasing velocity in the 
water until it arrives at the circumference of the fan, and then 
to have a gradually decreasing velocity until it issues from the 
discharge-pipe. This condition is effected by having a conical 
end to the suction-pipe, and, what is much more important, is 
to have a spiral casing surrounding the fan. The importance of 
this last detail, Mr. Parsons says, is shown most conclusively 
by experiments with both circular and spiral cases. The form 
of the casing should be an Archimedian spiral, which has the 
property that the water flowing round the case moves with 
the same velocity as that issuing from the fan. The casing 
should then gradually open out into the discharge-pipe. 

TABLE XXI. 

EXPERIMENTAL EFFICIENCIES OBTAINED BY R. C PARSONS ON A I4-INCH RE- 
VOLVING FAN, IO-INCH SUCTION, AND IO-INCH DISCHARGE, MADE ON THE 
APPOLD PRINCIPLE. 





Gallons 
per Minute. 


Lift in Feet. 


FOOT-POUNDS. 




per Minute. 


Water Raised. 


Indicated Power. 


Per cent. 


392 

394 
395 
400 

405 
425 
43i 
435 


IOI2 
I IO8 
1197 

1431 
1695 
1 108 

1431 
1695 


I4.67 
I4.70 
I4.65 

14-75 

14.75 

17.20 

17.40 

17.60 


148,461 
162,875 

I75.364 
211,073 
251,987 
190,576 

248,994 
298,310 


298,438 
317,158 
332,I3 6 

374,954 

419,790 

388,316 

447,552 

486 050 


49-74 

5i-35 
52.80 

56.20 

60.17 

48.97 

53-63 
61.37 



This pump was placed on a floating scow to obtain as 
nearly as possible a constant lift ; it was driven by a separate 
steam-engine, and the power was measured by a dynamometer. 

There are two totally different conditions in which a cen- 
p w 29 



33 s PUMPING MACHINERY. 

trifugal pump may be situated while it is rotating, — one in 
which it is revolving just fast enough to raise the water up 
to the discharge-pipe and no farther, and another in which 
it is revolving slightly faster, and is discharging water out 
of this pipe. In the first case there is only centrifugal force, 
which is produced by the water in the fan rotating, that 
maintains the column of water in the discharge-pipe. In the 
second case, this force is still produced, but in addition to it 
another, which may be called the force of impact, or in other 
words, the force with which the blades of the fan impinge 
against the water discharged by the pump. 

The centrifugal force in the first case was calculated by 
Mr. Parsons to be as follows : Assuming that the fan is a 
cylinder of water ; every particle of this water as it rotates 
exerts a force outwards from the centre ; consequently the 
force exerted at the circumference, or that which maintains 
the head in the discharge-pipe, is the sum of the forces of all 
the particles from the centre of the fan to the circumference. 
This force is given in pounds per square inch by the formula 



-/. 



R 

Pxdx. (i) 



IV 2 



o g 

Integrating this expression 



p R 2 zi'- /„\ 

F=£ ( 2 ) 

p = weight in pounds of a column of water I inch square in section and I foot 

long. 
R = radius of fan in feet. 
w = angular velocity of fan. 
g = dynamical force of gravity. 

Now, since R w = v, where v equals velocity of circumference of fan. by re- 
placing R 2 vr by v 2 in equation 2 it becomes 

F = ^ (3) 

2 g 
Now, supposing that the head supported by the fan, while it is rotating with a 

tangential velocity z\ be h, then the pressure at the base of the column is//;, but 

by the ordinary formula of dynamics 

ft . therefore ph =-C— _ (4) 

2r' 2 g 

thus by equations 3 and 4 F ' = ph. 






CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS. 339 

Therefore a fan, when rotating, will support a column of 
water the velocity due to whose height is equal to the tangen- 
tial velocity of the circumference of the fan. This conclusion 
is fully borne out by experiments, where corrections are made 
for the axle of the pump displacing a small quantity of water, 
and thus reducing to a slight extent the centrifugal force. 

The Second Force exerted in this Case is that of 
Impact. — It is estimated by the maximum tangential velocity 
generated in the water passing through the fan, which takes 
place just as it is escaping at the circumference. The reason 
advanced that this force can be estimated by the tangential 
velocity produced is that no other force can produce this 
velocity. 

The centrifugal force can only produce a radial force 

or radial velocity, but can in no case produce a tangential force 
or tangential velocity. This latter force can only be made use 
of by gradually reducing the velocity of the water issuing 
from the fan, and this condition is effected by the spiral casing 
and conical discharge-pipe, which can easily be calculated by 
multiplying v by cosine 0' f the angle made by the blade of the 
fan at its outer extremity with the tangent to the fan ; and 
subtracting this from V, the velocity of the circumference, the 
absolute tangential velocity of the water leaving the fan is 
obtained, — viz. : 

v' = V —v cos 6 (5) 

The head then due to this velocity is given by the formula 

H 2 = V - (6) 

This, in other words, is the height that the water would rise 
supposing that there was no friction to impede it. Now, the 
circumferential force has been estimated in pounds per square 
inch ; but by dividing it by 0.434 it is reduced to feet head of 
water. Then, by adding these two heads together, the theo- 
retical height to which the pump lifts the water is obtained, 
—i.e.— 

F 7/2 

^ 2 434 ^ 2g 



340 PUMPING MACHINERY. 

This theoretical lift is always greater than that deduced by 
experiment, and it is only in a perfect pump that these two lifts 
would coincide. Consequently, if the practical lift be divided 
by the theoretical lift, and the result multiplied by 100, the 
percentage efficiency of the pump is obtained. 

Effect of High Speed of Rotation. — The faster the fan 
rotates, the lift remaining constant, the smaller is the centrifu- 
gal force. This seems to be a paradox at first sight, but the 
reason is evident. As the discharge increases, the velocity 
of the water in the casing more nearly approaches that of the 
water leaving the fan ; consequently the efficiency of the pump 
improves, and the theoretical lift diminishes', and with it the 
centrifugal force. 

A remarkable property of centrifugal pumps may be men- 
tioned, which has been clearly shown by experiment, and that 
is, a small increase in the number of revolutions of the pump, 
when it has begun to discharge, produces a very large increase 
in the delivery. Thus, in Table XXI. the difference in dis- 
charge between experiments at 392 revolutions per minute 
and 405 revolutions per minute is 683 gallons per minute, and 
this with the small increase of only 13 revolutions. 

In the table of the Appold centrifugal pumps the highest 
efficiency given is 68 per cent., and in the table of efficiencies 
resulting from Mr. Parsons's experiments the highest efficiency 
is given at 61.37 P er cent., which is practically the same as 
that given by Mr. Webber in his reference to the Gwinne 
pump, tested in 1883, under 14.7 feet lift. 

Experimental Tests of Centrifugal Pumps by Mr. 

W. O. Webber. — Mr. Webber's use of the term efficiency 

.'•■..., , r Water H. P. _ 

he explains as indicating the value of - — . TT _ for such 

^ & Indicated H. P. 

pumps as are driven by an engine direct, and does not, there- 
fore, show the full efficiency of the pump, but that of the com- 
bined pump and engine. It is, however, a very simple way 
of showing the relative values of different kinds of pumping 



CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS. 



341 



engines having their motive-power forming a part of the plant. 
Mr. Webber's tests were made with ordinary centrifugal pumps, 




such as are supplied to the trade in the regular course of busi- 
ness. The general elevation of a 5-inch, class B pump is 

given in Fig. 227, and in sectional elevation in Fig. 228. In 

29* 



342 



PUMPING MACHINERY. 



calculating the efficiency of the pump, the cubic feet of water 
passing over the weir, measured by the hook-gauge, being 
converted into pounds by multiplying by 62.5, is again multi- 




plied by the height from the level of water in the tank when 
the pump is running to the centre of the discharge-pipe, and 
the foot-pound so obtained, divided by 33,000, equals the 
water horse-power being developed. 



CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS. 



343 



The power used to do this work is measured by the dyna- 
mometer and equals the dynamometer horse-power ; the water 
horse-power being divided by the dynamometer horse-power 
equals the efficiency of the pump being tested ; or to formu- 
late : 

Water H. P. the efficiency of such pumps as are 

Dynamometer H. P. driven by a belt. 

The diagram, Fig. 229, shows the efficiency curves for dif- 
ferent velocities, plotted from tests made of two pumps with 



Fig. 229. 



TO 
60 






*?•* 


i f" 


^•» 5*^ 


o>n 


•i 


i N 


f 


» *? » 


8.. 


«J 


J3, CfJ.. *k .» 


VX-. 


^ 


-j % 






1 






1 

1 

| 


VI 


LOC\ 


t)v If. 
1 

1 


nee 


1 


1 set 


ONE 


1 
1 


C it A 


PC 


k 


URE 






I 


I 
I 








a -a. 

*IP 
\ 

u 




1 

1 






1 
1 
1 






1 
1 






*sn 




"© 


















i 








50 
40 
30 
20 
10 
























1 






f 






pi 
















I 
I 






I 


d 


^ 


■ 










1 

1 






1 












1 






! 










I 






I 






1 








1 


a 




1 






r 






l 






1 










I 






I 


I 


l 






















I 






1 






1 








I 






I 


1 


1 

. . 1 








1 

1 




1 
_1 


QAI 


LONS 

1 


r° r ' 


waVe 

1 


i 

R PC 

1 


'"•' 


iuti 

1 


1 

TO 1 

I 


I 

T FCI 

| 


H 


L 


I 

:vat 


ON 




! I 


1 

i 

1 





s § 



S § 8 



5-inch apertures known on makers' lists as a No. 5, class B 
pump, and here illustrated. 

These tests were made under an average elevation of 17 
feet, the pumps in both cases draughting about 9 feet and dis- 
charging 8 feet higher. The upper curve a b was the result 
of tests made by a pump that was very clean and smooth inside. 
The lower curve c d was made by a pump in which, through 
carelessness in the foundry, the core sand had been allowed 
to burn into the inside face of volute or casing and water- 
passages. The difference between these two curves (which, 
by the way, are remarkably uniform) shows the absolute 
necessity of having the inside of all such pump-castings very 



344 



PUMPING MACHINERY. 



smooth and free from the slightest roughness. Both of these 
pumps were taken at random from stock, and were in no wise 
especially prepared for these tests. These tests seem to show 
that the efficiency rises very gradually and uniformly until the 
water reaches a velocity equal to 1 1 y 2 feet per second. The 
highest efficiency with this size pump seems to equal a 
velocity of 12 feet per second, after which point the efficiency 
falls very rapidly. 

A selection covering a considerable range of efficiencies is 
taken from Mr. Webber's table of data, as follows : 



TABLE XXII. 

TESTS OF CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS (NO. 5, CLASS B) — WEBBER. 



Revolutions of pump . . . 

Height of lift 

Net load on dynamo . . . 
Water cubic feet per minute 
Water in gallons per minute 
Water in foot-pounds . . . 
Water horse- power .... 
H. P. for dynamo .... 

" W. H. P ) 
Efficiency, • ^^p. j ■ 



-590 

16'S" 


410 

J 4 D 


445 
rj'io" 


460 
17V 


470 
17V 


510 
1/2" 


585 

i 7 'io" 


14,850 

29.78 


l8,200 

43-35 


23,200 

63-51 


25,9°5 
87.14 


28,036 
100.42 


34.188 
123.0 


32,790 
in. 83 


224.4 

.948 


3 2 4-3 

39, lSl 
1. 19 


475-1 

7 .-585 

2.14 


651.8 

93,458 

2.83 


749-4 
107,250 

3-25 


920.0 

4.0S 


840.4 

::_ :;: 

3-7* 


2.7 


2.4 


4.0 


4-7 


5-3 


7-4 


6.5 


•35 


•43 


•53 


.60 


.6! 


■55 


•59 



40,000 
122.37 

9x7.8 

i3 x »29S 

: 

fc.fi 

•47 



In another series of tests undertaken by Mr. Webber the 
results seemed to show that the efficiency of centrifugal pumps 
increases as the size of the pump increases, and which might 
be approximately stated as follows : that a 2-inch pump (this 
designation meaning always the size of discharge outlet in 
inches of diameter) giving an efficiency of 38 per cent, a 3- 
inch pump giving 45 per cent., and a 4-inch pump giving 52 
per cent., were giving as good results, proportionally, as a 5- 
inch pump at 60 per cent., and a 6-inch pump at 64 per cent. 
of efficiency. 

Table XXIII. gives a list of sizes of centrifugal pumps as 
made by the Lawrence Machine Company, together with the 
deliveries at various heights and revolutions per minute. 



CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS. 



345 



I/O M H H H H H 

O 4* ocv^ 4* to O Oooon-^ui to to 


Suction. 


N 

o 

5 s 

K 
I/) 


OJ 10 HI N« M M M 

O 4* OCt^x -f^ to O 00 ON<-n -p>. U) to hh 


Discharge. 


11 

tO OC OW U> tO HH HH 

"b Or "o Cn "o O "on ~>h t/i c»k> m 
QOOOOOOOOOjOOOONto 

oooooooooooooo 

oooooooooooooo 

tO n M 

t-n ^OC ji ^1 <-n 4^ Oo to 

O "q O "O O O O O ^D OsOj hh 
OOQOOOOOOO<-"On OCt-n 
OOOOOOOOOOOOOO 


08 

P 3 

:=0 

O 3 
3 5. 
</> o 

ft 

M O 

I s. 


JiU M M M M 

vb bi i m b ai n w b b b b 

<-"0 O 0<-"0 to <-n to vi vj tyi oo to 


Horse-Power per 
Foot-Lift for 
Smaller Quan- 
tity. 


OM^ M N3 m m 

<-n C\"vr VO «-« \0 4* OCOo UJ m O O O 
OOO-f^OOO-^^JO^J 00U\ u> 
00 CT- 


Horse-Power per 
Foot - Lift for 
Larger Quan- 
tity. 


MNWMMMHH 

00 004^ to 00 <^4^ to vj vj <-n On 


Diameter of Pul- 
ley. 


Q\<^i -f^-^ to (0 m Mvjvj^niyi 


Width of Pulley. 


■^■^ N W O CO OO^T On4>- UJ 


Width of Belt. 


M M M H M M MUlUOO^^ 

i-c NOJUtvJ M OOtO C"\M3 tO CTv 

Oi/iu O O <-" ui O <-" 0"-""-" 


qj 


B 

W 
O 

a 

H 

Z 
*i 

n 
w 

> 
z 

B 

< 
o 
r 

O 
Z 

i/> 

M 

g 

Z 
H 

n 


m i-i i-i hi hh n Oo Co 4^- 4^» 4^ <-n 
to 4^ <-n ^^ 4^ HLn OOJM — 
OUi 0<-" O O On Ui t-n Ln t^i <^i 


00 


►h "« m i-i (0 tO Go Co -P* 4^ <-ri <-n 
Co Cn DOOM <^4^ VO 4> "<I i-i <y* 
O Cn Cn Cn O O^ O Cn Cn Cn O 


q_ 


m h i-i hi tO tO Co 4*. 4i>. Cn Cn ON 
Co O^J O to OO^j i-i ^4 i-h Q\ O 
(yiUitnUi(yi O O Cn l/i O O Cn 


KJ^ 


M m w to to Co 4^ 4=>- Cn Cn Cn O 

O^O ^O Mtn H MMUM (0 OC 
0<^i O O O cn O Cn Cn Cn O 


H 

qj 


■~ tO tO tO MU A<^vd O Cnvj 
vj hi i-* 4^. vj _p». OMOOU) 004*- 
Cn O Cn Cn O O O O O O Cn 


to 
q_ 


■- (O tO (OUUViUi CMDM 00 
VO Co 4^- On O vj O ^ 4* no Cn to 
O hi O Cn O Cn O O Cn Cn O O 


to 

tn_ 


to to to to Co 4^ On On"-j vj oooo 
Cn4*t^iOOtOHi4>.HiOCnHiOO 
O Cn cn Cn cn O O O O O O^n 


U 

O^ 


to to to Co Co 4*- Cn On^i OC OOnO 
tO On VI MCnOJ OCCn 4». "vt -fc. 
O O cn O O cn O O^" O O cn 


CO 


i-i 

to 00 Cn-Co U N h h 

O Cn O Cn O O "o - (^ Oj i-i 

OOOOOOOOOOJOOOONto 

oooooooooooooo 




Minimum 
Quantity 
of Water. 







B' 








aq 








p 








"— ' 








^ 








d 








3 








T) 








t/2 














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346 



PUMPING MACHINERY. 



Efficiency test of a 24-inch centrifugal pump at the 

sewage station, Montreal. This test, conducted by George 



Fig. 230. 




H. Barrus, was with one of four centrifugal pumps made by 
the Lawrence Machine Company. The general arrangement 
of the pumps and engines is shown in Fig. 230. 



CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS. 347 

The pumps are arranged in pairs, two being attached to 
one shaft, and two to another shaft. A pair of engines, with 
cranks 90 degrees apart, is placed in a central position be- 
tween the two pumps on each shaft, the whole plant thus em- 
bracing four engines. The line-shaft for the two pumps and 
two engines is continuous, and the various sections are joined 
together by means of flange-couplings with recessed joints. 

Each pump is fitted with a steam-ejector, by means of 
which the pump is primed, and the outlet end of the dis- 
charge-pipe is provided with a plain flap-valve, made of cast 
iron. The opening through the valve is the full size of the 
pipe. Each discharge-pipe is 27 inches in diameter, although 
the outlet of the pump is only 24 inches in diameter, and the 
pipe is made of wrought-iron plates, with riveted joints. As 
seen in the sketch, the water, on leaving the pump, is de- 
flected from a straight course, a short bend being introduced 
connecting the pump to the discharge-pipe. With this 
exception, the pipe is straight. 

The test was made on No. 3 pump. It embraced an indi- 
cator test of the quantity of power used, and a capacity test 
of the quantity of sewage discharged. 

The pump was driven by the two engines on its shaft, and the 
No. 2 pump was allowed to run without being supplied with 
sewage. The character of the coupling between the two 
engines made it difficult to separate one engine from the 
other, and it was impracticable, for this reason, to make the 
test on a single engine and pump ; but as the object of the 
test was to find the quantity of power expended upon the 
sewage, the use of the two engines and the supply of power 
for the friction of the whole shaft did not prove objectionable. 

To determine the power expended upon the sewage, indi- 
cator diagrams were taken from each engine when the No. 3 
pump was at work in a normal manner, and again when no 
sewage was being discharged, the pump running empty. The 
difference in the quantities obtained is taken for the desired 
result. 



34$ PUMPING MACHINERY. 

To determine the quantity of sewage discharged, an orifice 
was provided at the outlet end of the discharge-pipe, and the 
necessary data were observed for obtaining the result by cal- 
culation. The data used for the purpose were the head of 
water back of the orifice, shown by a mercury gauge, and the 
known velocity of discharge from an orifice of this kind under 
the observed head. 

The orifice consisted of a J^-inch iron plate, with an open- 
ing 20 inches in diameter, which was introduced in the flange- 
joint, between the flap-valve and the main discharge-pipe. 
The edges of the orifice w r ere at right angles to the surface 
of the plate. 

The nature of the sewage, according to a sample dipped up 
from the pump-basin, was but little different, in the matter 
of consistency, from that of pure water, although it was con- 
siderably discolored. All the solid material is removed before 
its entrance to the basins. The weight of a gallon of the 
sewage was not determined, but for the purpose of calcula- 
tion, it has been assumed to be 8.4 pounds. 

The corrected indications of the gauges averaged : 

Feet. 

Mercury gauge. Actual head measured above centre of orifice 4.41 

Suction gauge. Suction-lift, including all corrections 15-59 

The total lift 20.00 

Average revolutions of pump per minute, 157.8. 

Boiler pressure varied from 75 to 91 pounds per square inch. 

TABLE XXIV. 

POWER TESTS. 

No. 3 Pump No. 3 Pump 

in Operation. Running Empty. 

1. Mean effective pressure, right-hand engine, 

in pounds 20.52 7.41 

2. Ditto left-hand engine, in pounds I 9-5° I - 1 ^ 

3. Ditto both cylinders, average, in pounds . . 20.01 3. 12 

4. Revolutions per minute 157 40 161.0 

5. Indicated horse-power 126. 18 20.16 

The difference between the results of the two tests, which is 126.18 — 20.16 
r= 106.02, is the quantity of power expended upon the sewage. 






CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS. 349 

The quantity of sewage discharged through the orifice, ex- 
pressed in cubic feet per second, equals V t the velocity of the 
current in feet per second, multiplied by a, the area of the 
orifice in square feet, multiplied by c, the coefficient of dis- 
charge. The first quantitv in this equation, V, is determined 

x/— — 

by the formula, V= 8 X * i — la \ 2, in which h is the head 

\a) 

in feet, measured from the centre of the orifice, a the area of 
orifice, and A the area of the discharge-pipe. The quantity 
c, for orifices giving a perfect contraction, is, according to the 
best authorities, 0.6. The contraction in this case was not 
perfect, and the coefficient is assumed to be 0.65. 

Substituting in the formula for velocity, h = 4.41 feet, a = 
area of a circle 20 inches in diameter = 314.16, and A } area of 
a circle 27 inches in diameter = 572.55, the velocity works 
out 20.8 feet per second. The quantity discharged per second 
is, therefore, area of orifice (2.18 square feet) X velocity (20.8) 
X coefficient of discharge (0.65) = 28.45 cubic feet per second. 
This corresponds to 212.8 gallons per second, or 12,768 gal- 
lons per minute. 

The quantity of work performed, which is represented by 
the raising of this quantity of sewage through the range of 
lift noted, — viz., 20 feet, — is 12,768 gallons X 8.4 (pounds per 
gallon) 20= 2,145,024 foot-pounds per minute. Reduced to 

horse-power, this becomes ' ^->> — - =65.01 horse-power. 

33,000 

The efficiency of the pump can now be calculated ; that is, 
the relation borne by what may be called the useful work of 
the pump to the power expended upon it by the motor. The 
useful work, as noted, is 65.01 horse-power, and the horse- 
power expended by the engine is 106.02. The percentage of 

efficiency, is, therefore, -JL — x 100=61.3 percent. 

106.02 

Efficiency of Large Centrifugal Pumps. — There is 
published in Engineering, Vol. LIL, an abstract of a report by 

30 



350 PUMPIXG MACHINERY. 

Mr. A. Elink Sterk, Haarlem, on the efficiency of centrifu- 
gal pumps tested by him, October, 23, 1 89 1, for the " Groote 
Ypolder," Holland. These pumps were constructed by Messrs. 
J. & H. Gwinne, London, but the dimensions are not given in 
the report, only the record of efficiency, which averages as 
follows : 

Water horse-power 104.8 

Coal consumption per hour per water horse-power .... 3.89 

Steam per pound of coal 7.59 

Steam per water horse power per hour 2: ~ 

Efficiency — ! ! — ' o.6s6 

' I. H. P. D 

The test lasted 4 hours and 2 minutes, the pump making 
in all 25,754 revolutions, or an average of 106.5 P er minute. 
The steam-pressure varied from 93 to 96*? pounds. The 
mean discharge of water in cubic metres per minute was 
1 16.7. The mean water horse-power was 104.8, the indicated 
horse-pow r er being 159.8; therefore, 104.8 -7- 159.8 = 0.656 
efficiency. 

The coal consumption per hour and per water horse-power 
was, according to contract, to be 4.97 pounds ; but it was 
actually found to be 3.89 pounds, or 1.075 pounds less than 
the contract figure. 

The efficiency, or the relation of water horse-power and 
indicated horse-power, was for the whole duration of the trial 
a mean of 0.656, but, as appears now, the engine did not work 
during the whole trial at the most advantageous speed. If it 
had run at its best speed the efficiency would certainly not 
have fallen below O.67, or fully 2 per cent, higher. 

This hi^h efficiencv. Mr. Sterk says, is higher than that of 
any centrifugal pumping engine known to him. The next in 
this respect are the large centrifugal pumps at Hatakbeh. in 
Egypt* made by Farcot, at Paris, each of which is capable 
of raising 400 cubic metres per minute. The efficiency of 
these pumps was, according to trials made by Mr. Bruhl, 
0.651. which figure Mr. Sterk has no hesitation in saying is 
flattered. 



CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS. 



351 



Morris Machine-Works Centrifugal Pump. — A sec- 
tional elevation of a centrifugal pump by the Morris Machine- 
Works, Baldwinsville, N. Y., is shown in 
Fig. 231. This pump has a central suction- 
opening, the revolving disk is furnished c 



Fig. 231. 




with curved blades for imparting to the water a proper direc- 
tion and velocity into the spiral chamber which surrounds 



Fig. 232. 



Fig. 233. 





the circumference of the revolving blades. The makers have 
adopted this design in common with other first-class builders, 



352 



PUMPING MACHINERY. 



as it was experimentally shown long ago that spiral castings 
closely surrounding the fan gave the best results. 

Several designs for pistons, as these revolving blades are 
sometimes called, have been tested in actual service, from 
which three have been selected for illustration. 

Fig. 232 represents a hollow arm piston, which is used in 
their standard pumps in size No. 4 and above. It is the one 
on which the fame of the Heald & Sisco pump is mainly 

based, and is their special favor- 
FlG - 2 34- ite for raising water or any thin 

fluid not too much encumbered 
with stringy or tenacious matter. 
For over a quarter of a century 
it has held the lead against all 
comers. 

Fig. 233 represents a concave 
arm wing, which they use in 
their No. 3 standard pump and 
smaller sizes. It has proved 
itself very efficient. For raising 
half stuff in paper-mills and 
stringy material often found in 
tan liquor, they recommend the 
wing as being the best. In 
pumping very thick material 
they use a wing with two arms 
only. 

The piston shown in Fig. 234 
is of their own invention, and 
has been used upwards of six years in their special sand- 
and dredging-pumps. It is very heavy, has large openings, 
and is very efficient. By its use material taken in it is de- 
posited on pump-scroll, thereby preventing wear on the pump- 
sides. All sand- and dredging-pumps of their make are fitted 
with it. 




i,ON/\NrQO.I3CHTCH 



CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS. 



353 



TABLE XXVI. 

MORRIS MACHINE-WORKS — STANbARD HORIZONTAL CENTRIFUGAL PUMP. 









Horse-Power 








Economical Ca- 


Actual Ca- 
pacity in 


required for 
each Foot 


Diameter and 
Face of 


Floor Space 


No. 


pacity in Gallons, 
per Minute. 


Gallons, per 
Minute. 


Of Lift. 
Minimum 
Quautity. 


Pulleys, in 
Inches. 


required, 
in Inches. 


1% 


20 tO 40 


l6o 


.OI 


5 X 5 


19 x 30 


1% 


40 to 60 


225 


.Ol6 


6X 6 


21 X 33 


2 


60 to 80 


3 2 5 


.019 


7X6 


23 X 37 


2/z 


80 to IOO 


400 


•039 


7X6 


24 x 38 


3 


120 to 180 


675 


.047 


7X7 


25 X 39 


4 


200 to 300 


1,300 


.078 


8 X 10 


3° X 40 


5 


350 to 500 


1,900 


.14 


10 X 10 


34 X 54 


6 


500 to 700 


2,700 


.22 


12 x 12 


37 X 55 


8 


900 to 1 ,300 


4,800 


•34 


l8 X 12 


45 X 63 


IO 


1,600 to 2,200 


7,500 


.64 


20 X 12 


51 x 71 


12 


2,000 to 3,000 


10,500 


.88 


24 X 14 


62 x 78 


15 


3,000 to 5,000 


16,500 


1.20 


30 X 16 


77 X 80 


18 


5,000 to 7,000 


22,000 


1.80 


36 X 18 


93 X 103 


22 


7,000 to 10,000 


35 >o°° 


2.90 


48 X 18 


126 x 13° 



The number of the pump is also the diameter of the dis- 
charge opening in inches. Where more than 25 feet of dis- 
charge-pipe is attached to the pump, they recommend using 
one or two sizes larger than the pump-discharge. 

The horizontal right-hand pump is the one preferred by- 
manufacturers generally. To use it without a priming appa- 
ratus the water must flow to the pump and rise as high as 
the top of the shell. They are the favorite for drainage and 
irrigation work, and when so used are generally fitted with a 
foot-valve. In point of execution there is no difference be- 
tween the horizontal and vertical pump. The former has the 
advantage of being more readily examined in case of acci- 
dent. All of their pumps are made to run right-handed, 
unless otherwise ordered. In their horizontal pumps the 
discharge, as usually made, will be in a vertical position, as 
shown in Fig. 235, unless another delivery is desired. 

Double suction-pumps are to be preferred to standard or 

side suction-pumps, where there is a suction-lift of several feet; 
x 30* 



354 PUMPING MACHINERY. 

but they can be recommended only for raising clear water, 
whereas the standard pumps will pass anything that will enter 
the suction. 

Combined Pump and Engine.— When a pump cannot 
be conveniently driven by a belt on account of the situation 
of shafting, distance from power, etc., a combined pump and 
engine may be quite satisfactorily employed, especially for the 
larger sizes. Such a combination is shown in Fig. 235, which 
is not only very compact, but economical in the use of steam, 
making them especially desirable for use on shipboard, circu- 
lating pumps for ice-factories, etc. 

For dredging operations a centrifugal pump fitted with 
a piston as shown in Fig. 234, has been found to give a high 
efficiency, the makers claiming that it will wear longer and 
cost less for repairs than the forms heretofore in use. These 
pistons are very heavy, twice as much as in ordinary pumps, 
and are fitted with a water-bearing that will prevent the sand 
from cutting out the journal and the shaft, thereby prolonging 
the life of the pump at least double over one fitted with a 
piston similar to Fig. 233 ; the latter being good for water 
pumping, has proven itself extravagant in the use of power, 
but wanting in durability on account of the rapid wear, because 
the sand is dragged at all times between it and the pump-shell, 
which increases the clearance between the shell and the wing, 
quickly impairing its efficiency. 

In this piston the sand is taken in at the centre and is 
deposited in the pump-shell, which has a clearance at the 
periphery of the same equal to the diameter of the pump's 
discharge. When the pump is in operation this is stated by 
the makers to form a water-cushion equal at all points on the 
outer edge of the piston, which is not found in any other 
pump. 

It is said that sand, mud, gravel, or marl can be dredged 
with a centrifugal pump at a much less cost than with the old- 
style dipper- or scoop-dredge, for the following reasons : 



CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS. 



355 



1. The plant costs about one-twentieth as much as a dipper- 
dredge. 

2. Less help required to run it, two or three men being all 

that are necessary. 

3. Material that will pass through 
pumps can be raised much more 
rapidly than with a dipper or scoop. 




4. That a pump-dredge can work in weather and sea where 
a dipper-dredge could not live. 

5. That a centrifugal plant is not liable to the many break- 
ages that occur in the dipper machines. 

6. When working in rivers or bays, material can be dredged 
and piped ashore at one operation. 



356 



PUMPING MACHINERY. 



> 
X 
X 

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0J 



CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS. 357 

The application of a centrifugal pump to dredging 
operations was tested by General Q. A. Gillmore, U. S. A., 
in deepening the channel over the bar at the mouth of the St. 
John's River, Florida. A No. 9 Andrews centrifugal drainage- 
pump was used on the deck of a small steamer. This pump 
had suction- and discharge-openings 9 inches in diameter. 

To the suction-opening there are connected by a 2-way 
branch-pipe two 6-inch suction-pipes, instead of one 9-inch as 
usual, the object being not only to work on both sides of the 
boat simultaneously, but to render the necessary handling of 
the pipes as easy and prompt as possible. There is, on the 
other hand, considerable disadvantage in operating with two 
suction-pipes instead of one, on account of the greater amount 
of friction for an equivalent suction-capacity ; for while a 9- 
inch pipe has an area of 81 circular inches, two 6-inch pipes 
have an aggregate area of only 72 circular inches. The fac- 
tional surface is therefore increased as 27 to 36, making the 
disadvantage from or loss by friction from this cause as 
2 to 3. 

As a partial compensation for this increased amount of fric- 
tion, an increased velocity is given to water in suction-pipes 
of less aggregate area than the discharge-pipe, and a larger 
proportion of sand is thereby carried up. 

It was necessary also to encounter another disadvantage by 
using several bends, of which there were two in each of the 
suction-pipes, and one in the discharge-pipe, those in the 
suction-pipe being each one-eighth of a circle, and that in the 
discharge-pipe one-fourth of a circle. These bends reduce 
the delivery at the rate of 10 per cent, for each turn of 90 
degrees, and about 6 per cent, for each turn of 45 degrees, 
the reductions in each case being calculated upon the quantity 
passing the preceding bend. 

Thus, the first one-eighth bend in the suction reduces the 
quantity to 94 per cent, the second to 88 per cent, and the 
one-fourth bend in the discharge to 79 per cent. The disad- 
vantages, therefore, under which the apparatus labored may 
be briefly summed up as follows : 



358 PUMPING MACHINERY. 

i. The loss by friction, due to the use of two 6-inch instead 
of one 9-inch suction-pipe, is increased 50 per cent. 

2. The unestimated loss by friction, due to the use of suc- 
tion-pipes three times as long as the height to which the 
material is to be raised. 

3. The loss of 21 per cent, by bends in the suction- and 
discharge-pipes. 

Although 200 revolutions of the pump-disk per minute will 
easily raise 3000 gallons of clear water 12 feet high through 
a straight vertical 9-inch pipe, 300 revolutions are required to 
raise 2500 gallons of sand and water 11 feet high, through 
the two inclined suction-pipes having two turns each, dis- 
charged through a pipe having one turn. To prevent the ends 
of the suction-pipes being lifted off the bottom by the pitch- 
ing of the boat, and as a precaution against accident, a portion 
of each pipe is made flexible, being composed of 6-inch rub- 
ber hose stretched over a coil of wire. In addition, the ends 
are loaded with an iron frame or drag, each weighing about 
250 pounds, which is intended to move flat along the bottom 
during the operation of dredging. To the under surface of 
this frame, directly below the mouth of the pipe, a number of 
teeth or knives are attached to stir up the sand and aid its 
entrance into the pipes. A chain attached to each drag, and 
leading to the deck of the steamer on either side, takes the 
strain from the pipe when the drag is down and the steamer 
in motion. 

The proportion of sand that can be pumped de- 
pends greatly upon its specific gravity and fineness. The 
calcareous and argillaceous sands flow more freely than the 
silicious, and fine sands are less liable to choke the pipe than 
those that are coarse. When working at high speed, 50 to 55 
per cent, of sand can easily be raised through a straight ver- 
tical pipe, giving for every 10 cubic yards of material dis- 
charged 5 to 5 y 2 cubic yards of compact sand. With the 
appliances used on the St. John's bar the proportion of sand 
seldom exceeded 45 per cent, generally ranging from 30 to 



CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS. 359 

35 per cent, when working under the most favorable con- 
ditions. 

In pumping 2500 gallons, or 12.6 cubic yards, of sand and 
water per minute, we would therefore get from 3.7 to 4.3 cubic 
yards of sand. During the early stages of the work, before 
the teeth under the drag had been properly arranged to aid 
the flow of sand into the pipes, the yield was considerably 
below this average, not often exceeding, and frequently falling 
below, 2 cubic yards of sand per minute during the time 
actually occupied in pumping. 

With a centrifugal drainage- pump sand can be easily dis- 
charged at a height of 30 feet above the level of the water ; and 
when the distance to which it has to be conveyed is so great that 
open troughs from the discharge-pipe to the dumping-ground 
cannot have sufficient inclination to secure a free flow of the 
sand and water, it would be necessary to make the discharge 
through pipes, increasing the power expended in proportion 
to their length, so as to insure a velocity that will transport 
the sand and prevent choking. The pump itself should, in 
all cases, be placed as low as possible, and it would generally 
be practicable to locate it from 3 to 5 feet above the surface 
of the water. 

The cost of dredging with a 9-inch pump would prob- 
ably not exceed 10 to 11 cents per cubic yard, inclusive of 
running expenses, wear and tear of machinery, and all stop- 
pages for repairs and other contingencies. Indeed, assuming 
the pump on St. John's Bar to have worked continuously in 
raising sand 10 hours per day, except Sundays, with the same 
average results per hour actually attained while pumping, 
thus charging the six working-days of each week with the 
expense of seven, the cost of raising the sand into the bins 
would have been only 8^- cents per cubic yard, and if it could, 
at the same time, have also been continuously discharged to 
the dumping-ground, through either open troughs or pipes, no 
additional expense, except a trifle for increased power, would 
have been incurred. There were, moreover, constant losses 



360 PUMPING MACHINERY. 

encountered on the bar while actually pumping, which would 
not occur in still water; and of which no account has been 
taken, due to the pitching of the boat, which frequently lifted 
the ends of the suction-pipes from the bottom. It is there- 
fore considered safe to estimate the cost of removing sand at 
IO to II cents per cubic yard, when the conditions are such 
that the work of raising the sand and discharging to the 
dumping-ground can be carried on simultaneously and con- 
tinuously. 

Centrifugal Pumps in Series. — Such a method of 
pumping water is not often carried out, but a recent example 
of such an application was shown in an instance where it was 
necessary to raise water 1 50 feet, the only appliances available 
for this purpose being a pair of centrifugal pumps, either of 
which was not equal to raising the water to a height above 75 
feet. It should be remembered that the operation of a cen- 
trifugal pump is due entirely to the centrifugal force of the 
water as it is revolving in the pump-case, but the water was 
raised to the required height by attaching the two pumps in 
series, the second one adding the necessary increment to the 
pressure which was received, and working in that way very 
satisfactorily. 

The reader is referred to an interesting and valuable paper 
on the " Irrigating Machinery of the Pacific Coast," by Mr. 
John Richards, published in the Proceedings of the Institution 
of Mechanical Engineers, London, 1888. This paper was also 
published in Engineering, Vol. XLIV. The paper is fully 
illustrated, and the writer only regrets that want of space 
prevents its reproduction here, as Mr. Richards has kindly 
placed it at his disposal. 



DUTY-TRIALS OF PUMPING ENGINES. 36 1 



CHAPTER XVII. 

DUTY-TRIALS OF PUMPING ENGINES. 

The duty of a pumping engine is a term used to denote the 
number of pounds of water lifted 1 foot high by the combustion 
of 100 pounds of coal. This is a convenient method by which 
to compare the results of pumping engines one with another, 
because a measure of duty in so many millions of foot-pounds 
of work done fixes at once the relative position which such an 
engine occupies when compared with other pumping engines. 

The method of calculation usually employed in ascertaining 
the duty of a pumping engine may be expressed in the fol- 
lowing formula : 

c 

Where A = area of plunger, in square inches. 
P = pressure in pounds per square inch. 
V= total plunger-travel during the trial, in feet. 
C= coal burnt during the trial, in pounds. 

Example based on a 10 hours' trial : 

A = 201 square inches, area of plunger. 

P= 80 pounds pressure, including the suction-lift. 

V= 66,000 feet of plunger-travel in 10 hours. 

C= 1600 pounds of coal burnt in 10 hours. 

~, 201 X 80 X 66,000 X 100 ,r c , - , M 

Then _ _ ! _ = 66,330,000 foot-pounds of duty. 

1600 

Another method of determining the duty of the same 
pumping engine may be expressed thus : 

WFx^Xioo = Duty 

Where G — gallons of water actually delivered. 
W= weight of water per gallon. 
H — height in feet to which the water is pumped. 
C = coal burnt during the trial, in pounds. 
Q 31 



362 PUMPING MACHINERY. 

Example based on a 10 hours' trial : 

G = 689,040 gallons in io hours. 

W= 8.33 pounds per gallon. 

H= 184 feet height to which the water is pumped. 

C= 1600 pounds of coal burnt in io hours. 

Then 689,040 X 8. 33 X 184 X 100 = 66,006,587 foot-pounds of duty. 
1600 



A high-duty pumping engine is understood to be one 
in which nearly or more than 100,000,000 foot-pounds of 
work are accomplished with an expenditure of 100 pounds of 
coal burnt in the furnace. This definition, it will be seen, 
couples the boiler and pumping engine as one machine, the 
coal being charged against one end of it, and the foot-pounds 
of work done are credited at the other ; and so far as the 
average water-works management goes, it is about all they 
care to know. To the engineer there are, however, interme- 
diate problems which are not only interesting in themselves, 
but useful to know, that a correct estimate may be reached 
regarding the efficiency of the plant in its several details. 

The boiler part of the pumping plant should always be tested 
separately from that of the pumping engine. In duty-trials 
it has been customary to assume the evaporation of 10 pounds 
of water from and at 21 2° Fahr. per pound of coal, without 
any allowance for ashes and clinkers. This assumption is not 
always realized in practice, and a deduction of from 10 to 20 
per cent, must be made to have it accord with ordinary boiler 
evaporation. This fictitious standard of boiler performance 
probably originated in a divided responsibility, one contractor 
furnishing the boilers and another the pumping engine. 
Some contracts have been made to read 1000 pounds of dry 
steam delivered to the engines, rather than the more usual 
one of 100 pounds of coal coupled with a boiler performance 
of 10 pounds of water evaporated per pound of coal. 

The boiler-test should be conducted independently of the 
engine, because a low efficiency is more likely to occur there 
than in the engine ; the ordinary performance of the latter being 
such that calculations may be made in advance with close ap- 



DUTY- TRIALS OF PUMPING ENGINES. 363 

proximation to experimental results. There are many things 
which afTect boiler performance : the boiler may not be prop- 
erly proportioned, the circulation in it not good, the furnace 
may not be the best for the fuel to be used, the draft may be 
deficient on the one hand, and too much air may be admitted 
for the weight of fuel burnt on the other. The heating-power 
of coal must of necessity be variable, because no two mines 
yield exactly the same quality of coal, to say nothing of such 
wide divergencies as exist between the properties of anthracite 
and bituminous coals ; it is clear, therefore, that the coal stand- 
ard is at best a very uncertain one in estimating the efficiency 
of a pumping-plant. 

The Duty-Trial Committee in their report to the American 
Society of Mechanical Engineers, published in Vol. XL, Trans- 
actions, recommend that in all reports on duty-trials of pump- 
ing engines, the existing unit of 100 pounds of coal be abol- 
ished, and that in its place a new basis of 1,000,000 heat-units 
be established. This new unit will not seriously affect com- 
parison with the one abolished, because it is expected that I 
.pound of coal will yield at least 16,000 heat-units ; therefore 

— ' = J 0-35 pounds of water evaporated from and at 21 2° 

Fahr., the denominator 966 being the latent heat of evapora- 
tion. 

The final results of a boiler-trial, for the sake of uni- 
formity and comparison with other trials should, as far as 
practicable, be tabulated in the form recommended by the 
American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Transactions, Vol. 
XL, which is here reproduced. 

1. Date of trial 

2. Duration of trial Hours. 

DIMENSIONS AND PROPORTIONS. 

3. Grate surface wide long Area Square feet. 

4. Water-heating surface " 

5. Superheating surface " 

6. Ratio of water-heating surface to grate surface 

(Give also complete description of boilers.) 



364 PUMPING MACHINERY. 

AVERAGE PRESSURES. 

7. Steam-pressure in boiler by gauge Pounds. 

8. Atmospheric pressure by barometer " 

9. Force of draught in inches of water Inches. 

AVERAGE TEMPERATURES. 

10. Of steam Degrees. 

11. Of escaping gases " 

12. Of feed water 

FUEL. 

13. Total amount of coal consumed* Pounds. 

14. Moisture in coal Per cent. 

15. Dry coal consumed Pounds. 

16. Total refuse (dry) " 

17. Total combustible (dry weight of coal, item 15, less refuse, item 16) " 

18. Dry coal consumed per hour : . . . . " 

RESULTS OF CALORIMETRIC TEST. 

19 Quality of steam, dry steam being taken as unity 

20. Percentage of moisture in steam Per cent. 

21. Number of degrees superheated Degrees. 

WATER. 

22. Total weight of water pumped into boiler and apparently evapo- 

rated f • Pounds. 

23. Water actually evaporated corrected for quality of steam ... " 

24. Equivalent water evaporated into dry steam from and at 212° 

Fahr.i " 

25. Equivalent total heat derived from fuel, in British Thermal Units B.T.U. 

26. Equivalent water evaporated into dry steam from and at 212 

Fahr. per hour Pounds. 

ECONOMIC EVAPORATION. 

27. Water actually evaporated per pound of dry coal from actual 

pressure and temperature Pounds. 

28. Equivalent water evaporated per pound of dry coal from and at 

212° Fahr 

* Including equivalent of wood used in lighting fire. One pound of wood 
equals 0.4 of a pound of coal, not including unburned coal withdrawn from fire 
at end of test. 

-j- Corrected for inequality of water-level and of steam-pressure at beginning 
and end of test. 

i Factor of evaporation = , H and h being respectively the total heat- 

9657 
units in steam of the average observed pressure, and in water of the average ob- 
served temperature of feed. 



DUTY-TRIALS OF PUMPING ENGINES. 365 

29. Equivalent water evaporated per pound of combustible from and 

at 212 Fahr Pounds. 

30. Number of pounds of coal required to supply 1,000,000 British 

Thermal Units 

RATE OF COMBUSTION. 

31. Dry coal actually burned per square foot of grate surface per hour Pounds. 

RATE OF EVAPORATION. 

32. Water evaporated from and at 212 Fahr. per square foot of heat- 

ing surface per hour Pounds. 

* 
\_Note. — To determine the percentage of surface-moisture in the coal a sample 
of the coal should be dried for a period of twenty-four hours, being subjected to 
a . temperature of not more than 21 2°. The quantity of unconsumed coal con- 
tained in the refuse withdrawn from the furnace and ash-pit at the end of the test 
may be found by sifting either the whole of the refuse or a sample of the same, in 
a screen having ^-inch meshes. This, deducted from the weight of dry coal fired, 
gives the weight of dry coal consumed, for line 15. — Duty -Trial Committee.] 

The pumping engine duty-trial should be conducted 
on the lines proposed by the American Society of Mechanical 
Engineers, previously referred to. 

The heat-unit basis of computing duty is proposed by 
the above society, and to make the computation from the 
quantity of heat supplied to the complete plant ; using not 
only that supplied to the engine-cylinders, but that supplied to 
all the accessory parts of the engine, such as the steam-jack- 
ets, the donkey feed-pump, the independent air-pump, if this 
be driven with steam, and any other apparatus using steam 
which is necessary to the operation of the engine. It is 
recommended that the scope of the test be made so broad 
that, for the sake of completeness, the quantity of steam 
which passes through the cylinders of the engine be deter- 
mined independently of that used for other purposes, and like- 
wise, that the quantity of steam used by each accessory part 
of the engine be also determined. In contract tests, if a steam- 
pump be used for the boiler feed-pump, the quantity of heat 
supplied for operating this apparatus is to be included in the 

31* 



}■:■: PUMPING MACHINERY. 

::ta". :::::::;■ r :: : : : :: - . - r .v;.t:e b::; , 1 : :..t: = r. i er.z.r.e 
are supplied by one party, but also where the boiler is far- 
ed by a separate contractor. 
The heat-unit method requires that the actual total heat of 
the steam shall be known, and for this purpose allowance will 
necessarily be made for any moisture or superheat contained 
: :he steam furnished to the engine. 

Measuring ZLie Work dene. — I:; itzizr.: : .z.:::z z::\ a 
szizzz.t me:::: i ::' :;.t .-.5 z::z. ~ :.:e a:v. : .:.: : :" ::\: aire ...:.. 
::iv:.ves a. ~;ea_s'_:re :: :;:e :u=.r_::r." :: ~.va:e: ais :.". ;.. :~ti ::".:: 



wnicii may De employed universally, and wnicn ma** 
reasonable mar. r.fr serve : he ends : the builder, purchaser, 
and all interest:: parties 

I: :s c::r:sea :;:a: :::e a'/ar.rrr-aisr/aaerr.e::: systerr ::' 
measurement be employed, and that the purchaser's interest 
be protected by the determination of the amount of slip in 
the pump, so far as slip is produced by leakage of the plunger, 
which is probably its main factor, and leakage of valves, if 
this occurs through faulty design. A satisfactory determina- 
tion of the approximate extent to which leakage occurs c : es 
not present serious difficul: 

In deciding upon plunger displacement, accompanied by a 
determination of the leakage, as the best mode of measure- 
ment for the purposes in view, the committee does not for a 
moment underrate the importance and desirability of measure- 
ment by weir, tube, or nozzle, whenever either of these car. : e 
employed to advantage. It is strongly recommended that 
these additional measurements be undertaken in all cases 
where it is practicable to do so, that the results of the test may 
be supplemented by the additional data thus obtained. 

Quantity of Work done. — In determining the quantity 
of work done by the pump, the committee recommends that 
the work of overcoming the friction of the water in passing 
through the passages and valves in the pump should not be 



DUTY- TRIALS OF PUMPING ENGINES. 367 

included in the desired total ; but that the work expended in 
friction of both the force- and suction-mains be included in 
that on which the duty is computed. It is held that the 
efficiency of the engine should not be made dependent upon 
any condition which is foreign to itself, and that the builder 
of the engine should be held responsible only for the work 
done from the time when the water enters the pump to the 
time when it leaves it. The purchaser, it should be observed, 
should guard his interest in the matter by having the mains 
furnished of such capacity as to reduce their friction to a 
minimum. 

To carry out these provisions, the data to be determined, 
apart from that relating to the plunger displacement, are the 
indication of a pressure-gauge attached to the force-main, 
that of a vacuum-gauge attached to the suction-main, and the 
vertical distance between the centres of the two gauges. 

It is recommended that no air be allowed to enter the pump- 
cylinders during the progress of the test, thereby removing 
all possibility of imperfect filling. If it is necessary, in special 
cases, for air to be " snifted in," this should be regarded as a 
defect in the action of the pump, which should be noted by 
the expert in his report, and such allowance should be made 
for the imperfect filling, due to the presence of air, as may be 
determined upon by an examination of the indicator diagrams 
taken from the pump-cylinders, or from other data which may 
be secured. 

Engine Performance. — The necessary data having been 
obtained in accordance with these recommendations, the duty 
of an engine, and other quantities relating to its performance, 
may be computed by the use of the following formulae : 

Foot-pounds of work done 
•^ ~~ Total number of heat-units consumed ' ' 

A(P±f + s) XIXN 

= — X 1,000,000 (foot-pounds). 

si 

C X 144 

2. Percentage of leakage = — — X 100 (per cent). 

A X ■*-• X ■*» 



363 PUMPING MACHINERY. 

3. Capacity = number of gallons of water discharged in 24 hours 
.-. ■ I « _ ' - - _■':_: 1 :_ 



- x 144 

A X L X .V'X 1-24675 



1 gallons). 



4. Percentage of total frictions 

ji(P±p + s) XL X -V 



r _ _ ^(i ? H = ^ + j) xz x - •'-[ 

2^1_ Z) X 60 X 33- OOQ 

L LMJ>. J 



X 100 



r --- P — P J rs\xLx -V~| M 

= 1 =^ — — — X 100 (percent. ; 

L As X J/.^.^- X Ls X AS J vv ; 

or, in the usual case, where the length of the stroke and number of strokes of 
the plunger are the same as that of the steam-piston, this last formula becomes : 

Percentage of total frictions = 1 — =^ — X 1 00 ('per cent.). 

^^ L As X ME. P. A * ' 



In these formulae the letters refer to the following quantities : 
A = Area, in square inches, of pump-plunger or piston, corrected for area of 
piston-rod. ( When one rod is used at one end only the correction is one- 
half the area of the rod. If there is more than one rod the correction 
is multiplied accordingly.) 
P = Pressure, in pounds per square inch, indicated by the gauge on the force- 
maim 
p = Pressure, in pounds per square inch, corresponding to indication of the 
Tacuum-gauge :~ 5-:tion-main (or pressure-gauge if the suction-pipe is 
under a head). The indication of the vacuum-gauge, in inches of 
mercury, maybe converted into pounds by dividing it by 2.035. 
s = Pressure, in pounds per square inch, corresponding to distance between the 
centres of the two gauges. The computation for this pressure is made by 
multiplving the distance, expressed in feet, by the weight of one cubic 
foot of water at the temperature of the pump- well, and dividing the 
product by 144, or by multiplying the distance in feet by the appropriate 
quantity found in the following table. The quantities in this table are 
computed from the weights of one cubic foot of water at the various 
temperatures, as given by D. K. Clark in his '• Rules and Tables," 
which also correspond to Charles T. Porter's figures in his work on the 
■ Richards '5 Steam- Engine Indicator." 



DUTY-TRIALS OF PUMPING ENGINES. 



369 



Temperature of 


Weight of 1 Cubic 


Temperature of 


Weight of 1 Cubic 


\\ ater in 


Foot of Water 


Water in 


Foot of Water 


Pump-Well. 


divided by 144. 


Pump -Well. 


divided by 144. 


Degrees Fahrenheit. 




Degrees Fahrenheit. 




32 


•4335 


75 


•4325 


35 


•4335 


80 


•4322 


40 


•4335 


85 


.4319 


45 


•4334 


90 


•4315 


50 


•4333 


95 


•43" 


55 


•4332 


100 


•4307 


60 


.4331 


105 


•4303 


65 


•4329 


no 


.4298 


70 


•4327 







L = Average length of stroke of pump-plunger in feet. 

A^ = Total number of single strokes of pump-plunger made during the trial. 

As = Area of steam-cylinder, in square inches, corrected for area of piston-rod. 
The quantity, As X M.E.P., in an engine having more than one cylinder, 
is the sum of the various quantities relating to the respective cylinders. 

Ls = Average length of stroke of steam-piston, in feet. 

A"s = Total number of single strokes of steam-piston during trial. 

M.E.P. = Average mean effective pressure in pounds per square inch, measured 
from the indicator diagrams taken from the steam-cylinder. 

I.H.P. = Indicated horse-power developed by the steam-cylinder. 

C = Total number of cubic feet of water which leaked by the pump-plunger 
during the trial, estimated from the results of the leakage test. 

Z? = Duration of trial, in hours. 

H z= Total number of heat-units [i?. T. U.~\ consumed by engine = weight of 
water supplied to boiler by main feed-pump X total heat of steam of 
boiler-pressure reckoned from temperature of main feed-water -\- weight 
of water supplied by jacket-pump X total heat of steam of boiler-pressure 
reckoned from temperature of jacket-water -}- weight of any other water 
supplied X total heat of steam reckoned from its temperature of supply. 
The total heat of the steam is corrected for the moisture or superheat 
which the steam may contain. For moisture, the correction is subtracted, 
and is found by multiplying the latent heat of the steam by the percent- 
age of moisture, and dividing the product by 1 00. For superheat, the 
correction is added, and is found by multiplying the number of degrees 
of superheating (i.e., the excess of the temperature of the steam above 
the normal temperature of saturated steam) by 0.48. No allowance is 
made for heat added to the feed-water, which is derived from any source, 
except the engine or some accessory of the engine. Heat added to the 
water by the use of a flue heater at the boiler is not to be deducted. 
Should heat be abstracted from the flue by means of a steam reheater con- 
nected with the intermediate receiver of the engine, this heat must be in- 
cluded in the total quantity supplied by the boiler. 

y 



37Q 



PUMPING MACHINERY. 



The total and latent heats may be found by reference to the Tables of the Prop 
erties of Saturated Steam, given in Charles T. Porter's treatise on the " Richards's 
Steam- Engine Indicator." 

The two examples following, (i) compound direct-acting 
duplex pumping engine, and (2) compound crank and fly- 
wheel pumping engine, are given to illustrate the method of 
computation. The figures are not obtained from tests actually 
made, but they correspond in round numbers with those 
which were so obtained. 



Compound Tandem Direct-Acting Duplex Pump- 
ing Engine. — Both high-pressure and low-pressure cylinders 
jacketed with live steam. Jet condenser used, with air-pump 
driven by main engine. Boiler feed-pump also driven by 

main engine. Jacket-water returned to boiler by gravity. 
Main supply of feed-water drawn from hot well. 

DIMENSIONS. 

Diameter of each high-pressure cylinder (two) 15 inches. 

Diameter of each low-pressure cylinder (two) 30 " 

Diameter of piston-rod, each cylinder (one at each end high- 
pressure, two at one end low-pressure) 3.5 " 

Diameter of pump-plungers (two) 15 " 

Diameter of piston-rod, each plunger (one at one end) . . 3.5 " 

Nominal stroke 18 " 

GENERAL DATA. 

1. Duration of test (D) 12 hours. 

2. Boiler - pressure by gauge (barometric^- pressure, 14.7 

pounds) 120 pounds. 

3. Temperature of water in pump- well 80 deg. 

4. Temperature of main supply of feed-water 100 " 

5. Temperature of jacket-water 280 " 

6. Percentage of moisture in steam o per ct. 

7. Weight of water supplied to boiler by main feed-pump . 22,40x3 pounds. 

8. Weight of water supplied to boiler by jackets ..... 2560 " 

DATA RELATING TO WORK OF PUMP. 

9. Area of plunger minus ^ area of rod [A) 1 7 1. 9 sq. in. 

10. Average length of stroke (Z and Ls) 1-572 feet. 

11. Total number of single strokes during trial (A" and Ns) . 76,000 

12. Pressure by gauge on force-main (P) 100 pounds. 



DUTY-TRIALS OF PUMPING ENGINES. 37 1 

13. Vacuum by gauge on suction-main 9.3 inches. 

14. Pressure corresponding to vacuum given in preceding 

line (/>) 4-57 pounds. 

15. Vertical distance between gauges . . . 8 feet. 

16. Pressure corresponding to distance given in preceding 

line (s) 3.46 pounds. 

17. Volume of water which leaked through the plungers 

computed from results of leakage test (C) 59°° cu - ft- 

DATA RELATING TO WORK OF STEAM-CYLINDERS. 

18. Area of high-pressure piston minus area of one rod (As x ) . 167.09 sq. in. 

19. Mean effective pressure high-pressure cylinder [M.E.P.^ 61.31 pounds. 

20. Area of low-pressure piston minus y z area of two rods 

(AsJ 697.24 sq. in. 

21. Mean effective pressure low-pressure cylinder (Af.£.P. 2 ) J 3-7 2 pounds. 

22. Number of double strokes each side per minute .... 26.39 

23. Indicated horse-power developed by steam-cylinders . . 99.61 I.H.P. 

24. Feed-water consumed per indicated horse-power per 

hour 20.88 pounds. 

25. Heat-units consumed per indicated horse-power per 

hour 23,088 B.T.U. 

= 383 B.T.U. per minute. 

TOTAL HEAT OF STEAM RECKONED FROM THE VARIOUS TEMPERATURES OF 
FEED-WATER AND COMPUTATIONS BASED THEREON. 

26. Total heat of I pound of dry steam at 1 20 pounds gauge- 

pressure reckoned from o° Fahr 1 220.6 B.T.U. 

27. Ditto, reckoned from temperature of main feed-water 

(ioo°) 1 120.5 " 

28. Ditto, reckoned from temperature of jacket-water (280 ) 938-5 " 

29. Heat consumed by engine (H) (22,400 X 1 120. 5) -\- 

(2560 X 938-5) 27,501,760 

RESULTS. 

Substituting these quantities in the formulae, we have 

A P p s L N 

171.9 X (100 + 4.57 4- 3.46) x 1572 X 76,000 

1. Duty = — X 1,000,000 

27,501,760 

= 80,671,622 foot-pounds. 

C 

5,900 X 144 

2. Percentage of leakage = — -7— j = — X 100 = 4.1 per cent. 

171.9 X 1.572 X 7 6 > 00 ° 



372 



pumping machinery: 



A L N 

„ . I7I-9 X 1-572 X 76,000 X 1.24675 „ „ „ 

Capacity = ' y — 3/ y ' — D = 2,133,735 gallons. 



D 
12 



4. Percentage of total frictions 

A P p 

171.Q X (1004-4 
I 



171.9X (100 + 4.57+3-46) 



As 1 M.E.P.^ As 2 M.£.P. a 

(167.09 x 61.31) + (697.24 x 1372 ) 



X 100 = 9.4 per cent. 



Compound Fly - Wheel Pumping Engine. — High- 
pressure cylinder jacketed with live steam from the boiler. 
Low-pressure cylinder jacketed with steam from the interme- 
diate receiver, the condensed water from which is returned to 
the boiler by means of a pump operated by the engine. Main 
steam-pipe fitted with a separator. The intermediate receiver 
provided with a reheater supplied with boiler steam. Water 
drained from high-pressure jacket, separator, and reheater, col- 
lected in a closed tank under boiler-pressure, and from this 
point fed to the boiler direct by an independent steam-pump. 
Jet condenser used operated by an independent air-pump. 
Main supply of feed-water drawn from hot well and fed to 
the boiler by donkey steam-pump, which discharges through 
a feed-water heater. All the steam-pumps, together with the 
independent air-pump, exhaust through the heater to the 
atmosphere. 

DIMENSIONS. 

Diameter of high-pressure steam-cylinder (one) 20 inches. 

Diameter of low-pressure steam-cylinder (one) ...... 40 " 

Diameter of plunger (one) 20 " 

Diameter of each piston-rod 4 " 

Stroke of steam- pistons and pump-plunger 3 feet. 

GENERAL DATA. 

1. Duration of trial (Z>) IO hours. 

2. Boiler-pressure indicated by gauge (barometric pressure, 

14.7 pounds) 120 pounds. 

3 . Temperature of water in pump- well 60 deg. 

4. Temperature of water supplied to boiler by main feed- 

pump, leaving heater 215 " 

5. Temperature of water supplied by low-pressure jacket- 

pump 225 " 



DUTY-TRIALS OF PUMPING ENGINES, 373 

6. Temperature of water supplied by high-pressure jacket, 

separator, and reheater pump, that derived from sepa- 
rator being 340 , and that from jackets 290 .... 300 deg. 

7. Weight of water supplied to boiler by main feed-pump . 18,863 pounds. 

8. Weight of water supplied by low-pressure jacket-pumo . 615 " 

9. Weight of water supplied by pump for high-pressure k 

jacket, separator, and reheater tank, of which 210 

pounds is derived from separator 1025 " 

10. Total weight of feed-water supplied from all sources . . 20,503 " 

1 1 . Percentage of moisture in steam after leaving separator . 1 . 5 per ct. 

DATA RELATING TO WORK OF TUMP. 

12. Area of plunger minus ]/ 2 area of piston-rod (A) . . . 307.88 sq. in. 

13. Average length of stroke (Z and Ls) 3 feet. 

14. Total number of single strokes during trial (A^and JVs) . 24,000 

15. Pressure by gauge on force-main (7 J ) 95 pounds. 

16. Vacuum by gauge on suction-main 7-5 inches. 

17. Pressure corresponding to vacuum given in preceding line 

(/) 3.69 pounds. 

18. Vertical distance between centres of two gauges .... 10 feet. 

19. Pressure equivalent to distance between two gauges (s) . 4.33 pounds. 

20. Total leakage of pump during trial, determined from 

results of leakage test (C) 3078 cu. feet. 

21. Number of double strokes of pump per minute .... 20 

22. Mean effective pressure measured from pump diagrams . 1 05 pounds. 

23. Indicated horse-power exerted in pump cylinders . . . 117.55 I.H.P. 

DATA RELATING TO WORK OF STEAM-CYLINDERS. 

24. Area of high-pressure piston minus *4 area of rod (As x ) . 307.88 sq. ins. 

25. Area of low-pressure piston minus l / 2 area of rod (As 3 ) . 1250.36 " 

26. Average length of stroke, each- 3 feet. 

27. Mean effective pressure measured from high-pressure dia- 

grams {M.E.P. X ) . 59.25 pounds. 

28. Mean effective pressure measured from low-pressure dia- 

grams (M.E.P. 2 ) 13.60 «« 

29. Number of double strokes per minute (line 21) ... . 20 

30. Indicated horse-power developed by high-pressure cylin- 

der 66.33 I-H.P. 

31. Indicated horse-power developed by low-pressure cylinder 61.82 " 

32. Indicated horse-power developed by both cylinders . . 128.15 " 
^. Feed-water consumed by plant per indicated horse-power 

per hour, corrected for separator water and for moist- 
ure in steam 15.60 pounds. 

34. Number of heat-units consumed per indicated horse-power 

per hour 15,652.1 B.T.U. 

35. Number of heat-units consumed per indicated horse-power 

per minute 260.9 " 

32 



374 PUMPING MACHINERY. 

TOTAL HEAT OF STEAM RECKONED FROM THE VARIOUS TEMPERATURES OF 
FEED-WATER AND COMPUTATIONS BASED THEREON. 

36. Total heat of I pound of steam at 1 20 pounds gauge- 

pressure, containing 1.5 per cent, of moisture, reckoned 

from o° Fahr. = 1220.6 — (1.5 per cent, of 866.7) . 1207.6 B.T.U. 

37. Ditto, reckoned from 215 , temperature of main feed- 

water = 1 207. 6 — 215.9 ............ 99*-7 

38. Ditto, reckoned from 225 , temperature of low-pressure 

j acket- water = 1207.6 — 226. 1 9815 

39. Ditto, reckoned from 290 , temperature of high- pressure 

jacket and reheater water = 1207.6 — 292.3 .... 915 3 

40. Heat of separator water reckoned from 340 = 353.9 — 

343-8 10. 1 

41. Heat consumed by engine (H) = (18,863 x 991-7) + 

(615 x 9815) + (815 X 9I5-3) + (210 X IO.I) . . 20,058,150 

RESULTS. 

Substituting these quantities in the formulae, we have : 
A P p s L N 

1. Duty = 3 ° 7 ' 88 X (95 + 3 " 69 + 4 ' 33 > X 3 X 2 4,ooo x I/D00>000 

si 
20,058,150 

= ir 3*853,044 foot-pounds. 

C 

3078 X 144 

2. Percentage of leakage = — -^ j ji~ X 100 = 2 per cent. 

307.88 X 3 X 24,000 

A L N 

r, 307.88 X 3 X 24,000 X I.24675 , „ 

3. Capacity = 2-L ^ J ^' _ J— 12 = 2,763,716 gallons. 

10 

4. Percentage of total frictions 
A P p s 



307.88 X (95 +3-69 + 4-33) 



As x M.E P. x As 2 ME.P. 2 

__ (30788 x 5925) + (1250.36 x 13-6) _ 



X 100 = 9 per ct. 



Guaranteed Performance. — In order that the contract 
between builder and purchaser of a pumping engine may 
conform to the proposed standard, the guarantee as to per- 
formance should be expressed in the following terms : 

I. The engine shall perform a duty, based upon plunger displacement, equiva- 
lent to not less than . . . foot-pounds of work for each one million heat-units 
consumed. 



DUTY- TRIALS OF PUMPING ENGINES. 375 

2. The leakage of the pump shall not exceed . . . per cent, of the total 
plunger displacement when the engine is working at its rated capacity. 

3. The boiler shall supply one million heat-units to the engine on a con- 
sumption of . . . pounds of . . . coal, or it shall evaporate not less than . . . 
pounds of water from and at 212 degrees per pound of the combustible portion of 
the coal named. 

4. The mode of determining these quantities is to conform to the standard 
method of conducting duty-trials recommended by the Committee of the American 
Society of Mechanical Engineers. 

Should one contractor furnish the engine and another the 
boiler, separate guarantees will be made, the individual re- 
quirements of which are the same as those noted. 

It is desirable, where both parties concur therein, to intro- 
duce into the contract the following additional provision 
regarding friction, — viz. : 

" The friction of the engine shall not exceed . . . per cent, of the indicated 
power developed in the steam-cylinders." 

The general mode of operation is to first subject the plant 
to a preliminary run under the working conditions, for the 
purpose of determining the temperature of the feed-water or 
the several temperatures where there is more than one supply. 
It is usually impracticable to weigh the main supply of water, 
derived, as it generally is, from a low-placed hot well, and 
the test of the main quantity of feed-water used must, as a 
rule, be made with cold water drawn from the service-main. 
The changed conditions in the working of the plant thus in- 
troduced and the arrangement of apparatus which is frequently 
needed to measure the additional supplies of feed-water, make 
it desirable to obtain the working temperatures as a prelimi- 
nary to the main duty-trial. Hence the preliminary run is 
made, as noted, merely for securing the temperatures. The 
main test of the boiler and engine is then carried forward, 
and during this test the weights of the various supplies of 
feed-water are determined, and the remaining data needed for 
making the computations. Finally, as soon as practicable 
after these tests are completed, the rate of leakage through 
the pump is measured with the engine at rest. 

As to the duration of the test, it appears to the committee 



3/6 PUMPING MACHINERY. 

that, so far as the main trial is concerned, which is practically 
a feed-water test, it need not be prolonged more than ten 
hours, unless, in that time, appreciable errors should be pro- 
duced by inaccuracies in the observations of the height of 
water in the gauge-glass. The duration of the boiler-trial 
might, with good reason, be made longer were it not that the 
results of the boiler-test are independent of those of the duty- 
trial. It is desirable to reduce, if possible, the number of 
hours of the trial to such a point that the time expended 
upon the work, including that required in preparation for the 
beginning of the test and that spent in bringing the test to a 
close, shall be such that the same expert, without undue 
physical exertion, may have the test under his continuous 
supervision from beginning to end. This is feasible where 
the length of the duty-trial, according to the plan proposed, 
does not exceed ten hours. 



An English method of determining the duty of a pump- 
ing engine is shown in the annexed abstract of a report on a 
Worthington high-duty pumping engine. The test was con- 
ducted by Professor W. C. Unwin ; the engine was constructed 
by Messrs. James Simpson & Co., London. The report is in- 
teresting for two reasons, — first, as showing the economy of 
a large pumping engine on a low lift, using a steam-pressure 
much lower than is common with us in high-duty engines ; 
and, second, as showing Professor Unwin's method of conduct- 
ing a duty-trial, which differs in some respects from the 
methods which obtain in this country. 

The engines are of the compound Worthington duplex 
type, fitted with high-duty attachment, the main dimensions 
being as follows : 

Diameter high-pressure pistons 27 inches. 

" low-pressure pistons 54 " 

" pump-plungers 40 " 

All of 44 inches stroke. 



DUTY- TRIALS OF PUMPING ENGINES. 



377 



The valves are of india-rubber and spring-loaded. The 
compensating cylinders are 1 1 inches diameter, and loaded by 
air-pressure to about 1 20 pounds per square inch. The pumps 
lift water from a well communicating with the river and deliver 
it through two 3-foot mains to the reservoir about nine miles 
distant. The head during these trials, measured by the differ- 
ence of pressure in the suction- and discharge-pipes, was from 
50 to 65 feet ; a head almost entirely expended in overcoming 
the friction of the main. 

The engine-cylinders were completely jacketed, and the 
steam was also taken through a jacketed reservoir between 
the cylinders. The jacket-water was discharged through a 
pipe regulated by a stop-valve and weighed. The condensers 
are injection-condensers with horizontal air-pumps. 

The actual dimensions of cylinders, pumps, and rods were 
as tabulated below : 

DIAMETERS AND AREAS OF CYLINDERS AND PUMPS. 







Diam- 


Diam- 


Area of 


Area of 


Effective 








eter at 
6o° F. 


eter at 
3 i6°F. 


Piston. 


Rod. 


Area. 


Means. 






Inches. 


Inches. 


Sq. in. 


Sq. in. 


Sq. in. 




H. P. cylinder A. 


Back. . 


26.98 


27.02 


573-4 


177 


555-7 


1 


" " A. 


Front . 


26.98 


27.02 


573-4 


23.8 


549-6 


1- 553 5 


" " B. 


Back. . 


27.02 


27.06 


575-1 


17-7 


557-4 


" " B. 


Front . 


27.02 


27.06 


575-t 


23.8 


55^-3 


J 


L. P. cylinder A. 


Back . . 


53-99 


54-07 


2296.2 


7.0 


2289.2 




" " A. 


Front . 


53-99 


5407 


2296.2 


17.7 


2278.5 


► 2285.1 


" " B. 


Back. . 


54.02 


54.IO 


2298.7 


7.0 


2291.7 


" " B. 


Front . 


54.02 


54- 10 


2298.7 


17.7 


2281 




Pump-plungers. 


Back . . 


39-90 


. . . 


1250.0 


16.8 


1233.2 


[ 1241.6 


a 


Front . 


39-9° 


. . . 


1250.0 


0. 


1250.0 



The boilers were single-flued Cornish boilers, four in 
number, each 28 feet in length and 6 feet in diameter, with a 
single flue 3 feet 6 inches in diameter for the greater part of 
the length. The length of the grate was 4 feet 6 inches. 
Hence the grate area of the four boilers was 60 square feet. 



Measurement of the Feed. — The feed was supplied at a 
nearly constant temperature of 5 1 degrees, the ordinary feed 

3 2 * 



3/8 PUMPING MACHINERY. 

arrangements which supply the boilers with hot water from 
the jackets and hot well being disconnected. The boiler 
feed-pump took its steam from the boilers in use and ex- 
hausted into the tank, from which it pumped. The whole of 
the steam used was therefore recondensed and returned to 
the boilers. Of the heat supplied by the boilers to work the 
feed-pump nearly all was returned to the boilers. A small 
portion — viz., that due to the useful work of pumping and that 
lost by radiation from the tank — was no doubt lost, a small 
error telling against the main engines. 

Measurement of the Air-Pump Discharge.— The air- 
pump discharge was led into a wooden tank with stilling 
screens. From this it was discharged through a sharp-edged 
circular orifice freely into the air. The diameter of the orifice 
was carefully tested after the trials, and the coefficient of dis- 
charge from similar orifices is known to be 0.599. The tem- 
perature and head were noted every 7^ minutes. The tem- 
peratures were taken by a fixed zero thermometer, with open 
scale, and verified at Kew. 

Measurement of Length of Stroke. — As the stroke is 
variable, an arrangement of indicating-fingers was attached to 
each engine, and the length of stroke of each engine was 
noted every quarter of an hour. 

Indicated Power. — The indicated power was taken by 
four Richards's indicators, which were afterwards tested, with 
the result that no important error was found in any part of 
the scale with any of the springs. Diagrams were taken every 
half-hour. 

TRIAL OF ENGINES ON NOVEMBER C AND 6, 1 888. 

This was a 24 hours' trial, the coal consumption being 
measured as well as the efficiency of the engines. The trial 
commenced 10.22 a.m., November 5, and ended 10.22 a.m., 
November 6. 



DUTY-TRIALS OF PUMPING ENGINES. 



379 



The barometer varied a little during the twenty-four hours, 
the mean being 29.78 inches (corrected), corresponding to 
14.627 pounds per square inch. 

The temperature of the injection varied from 48.6° Fahr. to 
49. 5 , the mean being 49.2 Fahr. 

The mean boiler-pressure was 60.29 pounds per square 
inch (7492 pounds absolute). 

The mean vacuum shown by a mercury gauge on the en- 
gine was 27.76 inches, or 13.63 pounds per square inch. 

The total head of water on the pumps was about 55 feet at 
starting and 53.5 feet at the end of the trial. It varied little 
during the trial, and the mean head was 53.68 feet. 

The air-pressure in the compensating air-vessel varied 
from 118 pounds to 122 pounds per square inch above the 
atmosphere. 

Speed and Length of Stroke. — The speed was remark- 
ably constant, and averaged 17.282 double strokes per minute. 
The length of stroke varied from 42.32 inches to 43.56 inches; 
the mean length of stroke was 43.06 inches for engine A and 
43.05 inches for engine B. 



Indicated Horse-Power. — The reduction of diagrams 
taken every half-hour for the first eight hours, and every 
hour afterwards, gave the following results. The variation of 
the diagrams was very small. 

Indicated Horse-Power. 
High-pressure, back, 31.662 
Low-pressure, back, 31.145 = 62.807 % 
High-pressure, front, 34.176 \ 128.668 

Low-pressure, front, 31.685 = 65.861 J 
High-pressure, back, 35.856 
Low-pressure, back, 28.073 = 63.929 \ 
High-pressure, front, 35.236 \ 126.849 

Low-pressure, front, 27.684 = 62.920 ) 

Total indicated horse-power of both engines 255.517 

The Pumps. — The mean lift was 53.68 feet; mean length 
of stroke, 3.5879 feet. Number of strokes per minute, 17.282. 



gu 


ie A. 


tt 


A. 


(< 


A. 


(( 


A. 


(( 


B. 


u 


B. 




B. 


«( 


B. 



3 



8o PUMPING MACHINERY. 



Hence the pumps lifted 13,407 gallons* per minute. The 
pump horse-power is 217.06, consequently the mechanical 
efficiency of the engines and pumps is 0.8495. 

The Feed- and Jacket- Water. — The feed-water had a 
mean temperature of 51.07 degrees. The total feed-water 
used was 108,537.4 pounds, or 4522.39 pounds per hour. 
The amount of drainage from the jackets was 706 pounds 
per hour. Consequently, reckoned per indicated horse-power 
per hour, the quantities were : 

Total feed fat 51.07 degrees) per indicted horse-power per hour .... 17.700 
Jacket condensation 2.763 

Used in the cylinders 14.937 

Air-Pump Discharge. — The mean head over the orifice 
was 1.7033 feet, and the mean temperature 74.965 degrees. 
The total air-pump discharge was 2586 pounds per minute, or 
2522.4 pounds of injection-water and 63.6 pounds of con- 
densed steam. 

Heat rejected by the Engine per Indicated Horse- 
Power per Minute. — The heat required to raise the whole 
air-pump discharge from 49.2 to 74.965 degrees. We get 
for the heat rejected 260.7 thermal units per indicated horse- 
power per minute. This is Donkin's coefficient. The more 
accurate estimate of the heat rejected is as follows : 

Thermal Units. 

Heat due to 2522.4 pounds of injection- water per minute raised from 49. 2° 

Fahr. to 74.965 Fahr 64,990 

Heat due to 63.6 pounds of feed- water raised from 51.07° Fahr. to 

74.965° Fahr 1,519 

Fleat due to 11.78 pounds of jacket- water raised 256.3° Fahr 3,020 

69,529 

Heat rejected per indicated horse-power per minute 272. 1 

Add converted into work 42.7 

314.8 
Which neglects the loss by radiation. 

* It will be understood that these are English gallons of 277.274 cubic inches. 



DUTY- TRIALS OF PUMPING ENGINES. 38 1 

Heat used, reckoned from the Boiler-Pressure. — 
The total heat of the steam, considered dry, reckoned from 
the feed-temperature at the mean boiler-pressure, is 1 156.5 
thermal units per pound. Consequently, the heat delivered 
from the boiler to the engine was 341. 1 thermal units per 
indicated horse-power per minute. The difference between 
this and the previous estimate of 314.8 represents loss by 
radiation, error due to the presence of priming water in the 
steam, and errors of observation. 

TABULATED RESULTS. 

Double strokes per minute 17.282 

Boiler-pressure 60.29 l° s - P er sc l- m - 

Feed- water per minute 75-37 pounds. 

Jacket drains per minute 11.77 " 

Temperature of steam 3°7-36 deg. Fahr. 

Pressure on pump 23.26 lbs. per sq. in. 

Pressure on compensators 120 " " 

Mean pressure in high- pressure cylinders . 32.92 " " 
Mean pressure in low-pressure cylinders . . 6.905 " " 

Temperature of injection 49.2 deg. Fahr. 

Temperature of air-pump discharge . . . 74.965 deg. Fahr. 

Head over orifice I 7033 feet. 

Air-pump discharge per minute 2586 pounds. 

Injection-water per minute 2522.4 " 

Heat passing through engine per indicated horse-power per 
minute: 

Thermal units from boiler in saturated steam through cylinders 

from feed temperature 287.8 

Latent heat of jacket-steam 41-45 

329-25 

Heat rejected in air-pump discharge 260.24 

Converted into work 4 2 -75 

Radiation and error 26.26 



329-25 



Indicated horse-power 255.517 

Pump horse-power 217.06 

Mechanical efficiency 8495 

Feed per indicated horse-power per hour through cylinders . . . 14.937 pounds. 

Feed per indicated horse-power through jackets 2.763 " 

Piston-speed per minute • . . 1 24 feet. 



3 82 PUMPING MACHINERY. 

It should be noted here that the engines worked for twenty- 
four hours with the greatest regularity of speed and stroke, 
and this although the steam- and expansion-valves remained 
untouched after their first adjustment at starting. 

THE BOILERS. 

Measurement of Coal used. — The ash-pits were cleared 
before the trial, and afterwards nothing was removed till the 
end of the trial. The fires were cleaned before the trial began, 
and again at 4 a.m. The fires were not touched at the end 
of the trial, but the ash-pits were immediately cleaned, and the 
whole of the ashes treated thus: 

First the clinkers, including those removed from the fires at 
4 a.m. (six hours before the end of the trial), were separated 
and weighed. The rest of the ashes were sifted through 
a sieve with a half-inch mesh. All that passed through the 
sieve is treated as incombustible ash, although probably one- 
third of it is unburned carbon. What did not pass through 
the sieve is treated as unburned fuel. Analysis in similar 
cases has shown that the cinders retained by the sieve are 
almost entirely carbon. 

The coal account then stands thus : 

Pounds. Pounds. 

Gross weight of coal brought into boiler-house . . 1 1, 1 80 

Left on the floor at the end of the trial 99 

Cinders sifted out of the ashes . 132 231 

Total coal used 10,949 

= 456.2 pounds per hour. 

The residue consisted of clinkers 66 

Incombustible ashes 366 

43 2 
The clinkers and ashes amount to 3.9 per cent, of the coal used. 

The rate of combustion was 7.24 pounds of coal per square 
foot of grate, or 0.19 pound per square foot of heating surface 
per hour. The coal used per indicated horse-power per hour 
was 1.785 pounds, — a very good result, as the feed was sup- 
plied at 5 1° Fahr., and the rejected heat from the jacket-drains 



DUTY- TRIALS OF PUMPING ENGINES. 383 

was wasted. The evaporation was 9.914 pounds of water from 
51.07 degrees at 307.36 degrees per pound of coal, including 
clinkers and ashes. This corresponds to an evaporation of 
1 1.867 pounds per pound of coal from and at 212 degrees. 

Calorimetric Value of the Coal. — The heating power 
of the coal has not been directly determined, but good Welsh 
coal is known to contain about 89 per cent, of carbon and 4 
per cent, of hydrogen, the rest being oxygen, nitrogen, and 
ash. The calorimetric value of such a fuel is 14,500 (0.89 -f- 
4.28 X 0.04)= 15,387 thermal units per pound. But this is 
reckoned for a dried sample of coal, and makes no allowance 
for the latent heat of the steam produced in combustion. 
There would be produced by combustion 0.36 pound of water 
per pound of coal, and the latent heat of this would be 348 
thermal units, so that the available heat of a pound of dry 
coal would be 15,039 thermal units. The coal as taken from 
the yard would contain at least 1 per cent, of moisture, so 
that the available heat of one pound of the coal as weighed 
and used would be : 

Thermal Units. 

Heat due to o 99 pound of coal 14,888 

Less latent heat of 0.01 pound of water 10 

14,878 

Available heat, 14,878 thermal units per pound of coal as 
weighed and used. Taking this value, the total heat due to 
the combustion of the coal is 26,557 thermal units per indi- 
cated horse-power per hour, or 442.6 thermal units per minute 
per indicated horse-power. Of this, 341. 1 has been shown to 
be delivered to the steam. There remains 10 1. 5 thermal 
units per indicated horse-power per minute to account for as 
losses in the boilers. The efficiency of the boilers is 0.77. 
The coal gave to the steam 11,466 thermal units per pound 
of coal used. 

Anemometer Observations. — Observations at each 
boiler every half-hour gave the following volumes of air 



3?4 PUMPING MACHINERY. 

entering per minute in cubic feet at the temperature 79.5 
degrees of the boiler-house : 

I:.:±: * J K L M 

Quantity of air in cubic feet per minute .420 45S _:: 360 

Hence the total quantity of air used was 1704 cubic feet per 
minute, or : : 5 : -ibic feet per pound of coal. The weight of 
the air used was 7489 pounds per hour, or 16.42 pounds per 
pound of coal. As the coal requires nearly 1 2 pounds of air 
per pound for perfect combustion, the quantity of air used was 
::. : ier=:e 

The mean temperature of the flue from the pyrometer 
: : ser itions was 422 degrees. 

Tabulating the results stated, we get : 



Per Hoar. 

? : _- ii 



Per Indicated Horee- 

r ;— -:: : t: H : _r. 
- : - : .: i 



. :z. _sri , -}: 2 I.785 

.-.:: zsti , . . . ~--~ r : 29.310 

-:_5.2 

Lr = E 1::;: ZZ'L l^zltTS l8.0 



-"-'- -t -- ::' zzzzzzzt rises "::" : 31.03 

Heat Used and Lost in the Boilers. — The thermal 
units of heat developed in the furnaces w r ere applied thus : 

Tr.tr-i' V-jrs per 

lz.i H:rjt-- :--=.-. Per Cent. 

Per Hoar. 

Total heat due to coal and gas 265:- 100 

y.-tz. :: r.tzzz 2: _:: "" I 

Carried off in furnace gases - : " I0 -° 

7: :: r . -5 :_t :: ~.z-tz:zz-Z zrt-zzzr- :: s::'±;e ::f I.o 

Z'_t :: :;;:■:" :r. ^iie- -^- II 

7.:: ii:.::. ir. i :r.:: : : _;\:t 1 ::: ----: IO -& 

This calculation depends on an assumption of the calorific 
value of the coal, but this cannot be far wrong. It assumes 
that the steam supplied to the engines was dry. If there was 
any priming-water, the heat given to the steam would be less. 



DUTY-TRIALS OF PUMPING ENGINES. 



385 



Oil the other hand, probably, the losses due to moisture in 
the coal and to air entering the furnaces during stoking are 
underestimated. 

Duty of the Engines. — The work done by the engines 
during the 24 hours' trial was 106,010,000 foot-pounds per 
112 pounds of coal.* During this trial the ordinary con- 
ditions of the engine were altered and heat rejected which is 
ordinarily used. 

Correcting for this, the duty of the engines in normal con- 
ditions of work must be 1 1 1.5 millions according to the results 
of this 24 hours' trial. 

To accompany this report drawings were sent, which are 
reproduced, as follows : 

1. A mean diagram, Fig. 236, drawn from the diagrams 
taken on engine A at 12.30 p.m. On this has been plotted a 



Fig. 236. 



so-. 




Volume of Cylinder in cubic feet. 



saturation curve for the mean speed per stroke during the 
trial. Since the indicated power varied so little, this satura- 
tion curve must be very approximately the true curve for the 
actual diagrams. The re-evaporation during the stroke is 



* The difference between the British and the American standard of hundred- 
weight will be noted, and the proper credit given. 



3 86 



PUMPING MACHINERY. 



very marked, as was to be expected from the large jacket 
condensation. 

2. Mean diagrams, Fig. 237, from all the diagrams of both 

Fig. 237. 

man of all diagrams from En sines A&B 
taken at l2.3Q.p.0l Nov? 5 #1888. 



lbs 

eoooo 




iaqfies 



engines taken at 1 2.30 p.m., are plotted so as to show the effective 

thrust of the engines at each point of the stroke. A curve 

of cosines is drawn, 
FlG - 2 3 8 - giving the ± thrust 

of the compensators. 
Combining this with 
the engine diagram, 
the resultant thrust 
is obtained. The ef- 
fect of the inertia, 
however, is neg- 
lected. It will be 
seen that the result- 
ant thrust is remark- 
ably uniform, and 
probably the effect 
of the inertia of the 
moving pistons and 

plungers is to increase the uniformity of this thrust. 

Indicator diagrams of both the high- and low-pressure 

cylinders are shown in Figs. 238 and 239. 




Fig. 239. 




HIGH-DUTY PUMPING ENGINES— DIRECT-ACTING. 387 



CHAPTER XVIII. 

HIGH-DUTY PUMPING ENGINES DIRECT-ACTING. 

The direct-acting engine possesses features which are of 
especial value in handling water. As originally constructed 
they were wasteful in the extreme ; subsequently, by the 
addition of compound steam-cylinders, a liberal saving of 
steam was secured, but with the best types of compound 
condensing direct-acting engines they fell far short of the 
duty attained by the crank and fly-wheel engines. The want 
of a suitable attachment to direct-acting pumping engines in 
order to secure the advantages of steam expansion, and thus 
compete with the crank and fly-wheel pumps, were recognized 
long ago, but realized only within the past ten years. 

Cameron's high-duty engine, the invention of the late 
A. S. Cameron, was patented in 1876, but so far as the writer 
is aware has never been placed upon the market. It is prob- 
ably the first device of its kind for using steam expansively 
in direct-acting pumps. The following engravings and de- 
scription present Mr. Cameron's views upon the subject. 

In Figs. 240 and 241 letter A designates the steam-cylinder 
and letter B the pump-cylinder, the pistons of which are con- 
nected by a rod, C. On this rod is secured a cross-head, I), 
which connects with the compensating-gear by two rods, E, 
and with the expansion-gear of the steam-cylinder by a rod, 
F. These rods are provided at their ends with hooks, which 
catch over pivots formed at the end of the cross-head, so that 
said rods can be readily disengaged, and the pumping engine 
can be worked in the ordinary manner without expansion. 
The compensating-gear which is represented in the drawing 



3 88 



PUMPING MACHINERY. 



consists of a cylinder, G, which is secured to the top of the 
air-vessel H of the pump. From one side of this air-vessel 
extends the ascension-pipe 7, and from its opposite side ex- 
tends a pipe, J t which leads into the top of the cylinder G. 
In this cylinder works a piston, K } from which extends a rod, 
L y through a stuffing-box in the cylinder-cover, and on the 
upper end of this rod is secured a yoke, M, which is guided 
between flanges a a, cast with or otherwise secured to the 
sides of the cylinder G. With this yoke are combined two 
pairs of toggle-levers, each pair consisting of two sections, 
N 0, which are connected together by 
pivots fr, while the upper sections are at- 
tached to the yoke M by pivots c, and 
the lower sections of the sides of the 
pump-cylinder by pivots d. The pivots b y 




which form the connection between the sections N of the 
toggle-levers, support the outer ends of the rods B, which 
connect the compensating-gear with the cross-head D. 

The cut-off valve or expansion-slide P is moved by a lever, 
Q, which connects with the cross-head D by the rod F. The 
valve-gear represented in the drawing is of that class known 
as " steam-moved valves." 



Working without Expansion. — When it is desired to 
work the engine without expansion, the rods i^andii are dis- 



HIGH-DUTY PUMPING ENGINES— DIRECT-ACTING. 389 



connected from the cross-rod ; but when the rods F and E 
are connected to the cross-head, as shown in Fig. 241, the 
operation is as follows : When the steam-piston moves in the 
direction of the arrow, Fig. 241, the water ejected by the 
pump is forced up through the ascension-pipe /; but a por- 
tion of such water passes through the pipe 
J into the upper part of the cylinder 
G, while at the same time the piston K 
240 is moved upwards against the 




pressure of the water acting on it. As soon as the toggle- 
levers N pass their centre of motion, however, the piston K 
begins to descend, and as it is continually exposed to the 
pressure of the water acting on its upper surface, it moves 
down with considerable power ; and if steam has been cut off 
at any point of the stroke of the steam-piston, the decreasing 
power of the expanding steam during the latter part of the 
stroke of the steam-piston is compensated for by the pressure 
of the water on the piston K during its descent. It will also 
be noticed that by the combination of the toggle-levers N 
with the piston K and cross-head D, the power exerted by 
the piston K on said cross-head increases during its descent, 
while at the same time the pressure of the expanding steam 
on the steam-piston decreases. 

Employing Weights or Springs. — It will be seen from 
this description that the power exerted by the compensating- 

33* 



39° PUMPING MACHINERY. 

piston AT during the second half of each stroke of the steam- 
cylinder changes with the resistance to be overcome ; that is 
to say, if the height to which the water is forced increases, 
the downward pressure of the water on the compensating- 
piston, and consequently the power exerted by the compen- 
sating-gear, increases in a corresponding ratio, and vice versa ; 
and for this reason, whenever applying a compensating-gear 
to a steam-pump, Mr. Cameron preferred to use the mech- 
anism shown in the drawing; but, if desired, a simple weight 
or spring may be substituted for the piston K, said weight 
being raised during the first part of each stroke of the steam- 
piston, and being made to descend during the second half; 
but it is obvious that the compensating power exerted by 
such weight will be uniform no matter what may be the 
resistance to be overcome. 

Davies's High-Duty Engines.— In 1879, Mr - J- D - 
Davies sought to accomplish the same result as that of Mr. 
Cameron, though in a somewhat different manner, as shown in 
Fig. 242, a device which he patented the following year. 

Mr. Davies's object was to cause the piston of a steam- 
engine or other motor to transmit a constant and equable force 
throughout every portion of its stroke, and prevent any undue 
strains on the different parts of the engine when operated ex- 
pansively, and to regulate the power to compensate for the 
variable resistance offered by the mechanism to be actuated. 

Referring to Fig. 242, A represents the frame, B the steam- 
cylinder, and C the pump-cylinder, of a direct-acting steam- 
pump, which parts may be of any approved construction. D 
is the piston-rod, to the centre of which is secured a cross- 
head, E. At opposite sides of the piston-rod D are located 
the auxiliary or equalizing cylinders F F' ', each of which is 
provided with trunions a a* ', which are journaled, respectively, 
in the lateral bracket G of the engine-frame and cross-bar or 
frame G' , the latter being supported on the uprights or pillars 
HH'. 

The piston-rods //of the oscillating cylinders F F' are 






HIGH-DUTY PUMPIXG EXG INKS— DIRECT-ACTING. 39 1 

provided with eyes on their outer ends, through which are 
inserted the bolts L L', which extend through the opposite 




3 



to 



ends of the cross-head E, thus pivoting the pistons to the 
cross-heads. 

The oscillating cylinders F F' are, in fact, single-acting os- 
cillating engines, steam, compressed air, or liquid being ad- 



.;- PUMPING MACHINERY. 

initted through the trunnions in any suitable manner to the rear 
portions of the cylinders to exert a. constant outward pressure 
on the pistons within said cylinders. When the main piston 
is at the commencement of its stroke, the auxiliary or equal- 
izing engines or cylinders will offer the maximum resistance 
to the outward movement of the main piston, as, of course, the 
main and auxiliary piston-rods are located more nearly in 
parallelism at the opposite ends of their stroke than at any 
other part of the stroke of the engine. As the main piston- 
rod moves outward the equalizer is gradually turned on its 
trunnions, and its resistance to the main piston gradually di- 
minishes until the main and auxiliary piston-rods are at right 
angles to each other, at which point the equalizers or auxil- 
iary cylinders will have no effect on the action of the engine, 
.en the centre of the main piston-rod passes the first half 
of its stroke the equalizers or auxiliary cylinders begin to act 
and assist the movement of the main engine, as the power of the 
main steam-cylinder is then re-enforced by the power exerted 
upon the pistons in the auxiliary cylinders, and the power of 
the latter constantly increases as the cylinders are swung 
around and their piston-rods approximate more closely a line 
of movement in parallelism to that of the main piston-rod. The 
angles of the auxiliary piston-rods are constantly changing 
from the commencement to the end of the stroke of the engine 
or other motor to which the equalizers are attached, and hence 
the relative amount of resistance offered and assistance af- 
forded by the equalizers varies throughout every portion of 
:he s:r:'-:e. The force of the equalizers may be varied 
throughout the different portions of the stroke of the engine 
or motor by a cut-off applied to any part of the supply-pipe, 
or by varying the cut-off or pressure on the main piston of 
the engine or motor, or by varying the pressure on the 
pistons of the equalizers during the different parts of the 
stroke of the main piston-rod, or by varying the proportions 
of the stroke of the equalizers to that of the stroke of the 
main piston-rod, or by changing its position during the stroke 
to vary the pressure, as desired. 






HIGH-DUTY PUMPING ENGINES— DIRECT- ACTING. 393 

In single-acting engines, or engines having a greater load in 
one direction, the equalizers may be placed nearer one end of 
the stroke, thus offering greater resistance in one direction 
and giving more assistance in the other than when located 
midway the stroke. 



The Worthington High-Duty Engine, the invention of 
Mr. Davies, was purchased by the firm of Henry R. Worth- 
ington. The value of the main features of this design were 
fully recognized by them, but its want of completeness in 
order to make it valuable in practical use in pumping engines 
required much thought, time, and money. Mr. C. C. Worth- 
ington, of the above firm, became personally interested in 
working out the several devices, which, in combination with 
the original invention, have demonstrated fully the practica- 
bility of this method of compensation in direct-acting engines. 
Nor is this all, — the compensating device must be applicable 
to duplex engines ; therefore this new train of mechanism 
must be applied to each engine separately, and both sets of 
compensators must be controlled by a common regulating 
device yet to be designed. A sectional elevation of this engine 
is shown in Fig. 243. 

Adaptation to Duplex Engines. — In the case of the 
duplex pumping engine, its one peculiar feature is the variable 
and adjustable pause which its valve motion permits at the 
end of each stroke. The effect of this pause when dealing 
with the pumping of fluids is well known to be of great prac- 
tical value. The combining with such an engine of a fly- 
wheel or any other contrivance in which the momentum of 
moving masses is employed for the purpose of enabling it to 
run under higher ratios of expansion, and consequent econ- 
omy, would rob it entirely of this distinctive and valuable 
characteristic, because only a determinate and instantaneous 
pause at the end of the stroke would then be possible. This 
fact has hitherto prevented the highest rate of economy being 
attained by this type of engine. By combining with it the 



394 



PUMPING MACHINERY, 




HIGH- DUTY PUMPING ENGINES— DIRECT-ACTING. 395 

compensating-cylinders, as described, a result heretofore con- 
sidered impossible with it is accomplished, — viz., not only 
does it realize as high ratios of expansion as are possible with 
any fly-wheel type, but the valuable and adjustable pause at 
the end of the stroke is retained. The duplex pumping en- 
gine thus becomes capable of attaining the highest economic 
results without the quality of its motion being affected in the 
least or its well-known smooth and quiet action sacrificed. 

Fluid used in the Compensating-Cylinders. — The 

first suggestion was to use steam in the compensating-cylin- 
ders, but, upon further consideration, compressed air was 
thought to be better suited for that service. The first engine 
built was for experimental purposes only, and this engine was 
fitted with an air- compressor and tank with a distributing 
system leading to the four compensating-cylinders. The air- 
pressure in the tank could be fixed and maintained at any 
pressure best suited to the work, or conditions of service. 
Notwithstanding the many advantages which compressed air 
seemed to possess for this particular service, it was thought 
preferable to fill the compensating-pipes, cylinders, etc., with 
water, and have the compressed air act upon it, as by this 
means a liquid packing is interposed between the compressed 
air and the pistons of the compensating-cylinders and con- 
nections, and thus acts to prevent the escape of air by leakage, 
and also to keep the pistons well lubricated. 

Safety Attachment. — Up to this point reference is had 
only to the compensating-gear and its usefulness as a means 
of using steam expansively, but a new feature was now intro- 
duced by which the steam-valves were to be operated from 
the cross-head of the compensating-gear. In the regular 
duplex engines the distribution of steam is effected by suitable 
links operated from the cross-head attached to the main 
piston-rods ; but by connecting the steam-valve gear with the 
compensating cross-head, it is apparent that if a breakage of 
a rod should occur at any point between the steam-pistons 



39 6 PUMPING MACHINERY. 

and the water-plungers, the compensating-gear for that side of 

the engine would be thrown out of service, and the motion 
of the opposite engine would cease immediately upon the 
completion of the then unfinished stroke. This is a feature 
of great importance, as, if the valves were operated so as to 
allow the steam to act upon the pistons after the rod was 
broken, the pistons, being relieved of their load, would be 
moved violently in the cylinders, and would be liable to cause 
great damage to the engine. 

In ordinary engines this can be done by operating the 
throttle-valve so as to properly regulate the amount of steam 
admitted to the steam-cylinders, and, so far as the available 
power which is developed by the main cylinders is concerned, 
this can be readily done in the present engine ; but as to the 
power developed by the compensating-cylinders, the case is 
different. The power developed by these cylinders, as will 
be readily seen, is always the same, regardless of the quantity 
of steam admitted to the main cvlinders, and cannot be regm- 
lated or controlled by the operation of the throttle-valve. 
When, therefore, the engine is to be started, or run with little 
or no load, there must of course be sufficient steam admitted 
to the main cylinders to overcome the resistance offered by 
the pistons of the compensating-cylinders up to the middle of 
the stroke. As soon, however, as the middle of the stroke is 
reached, the main pistons are not only relieved of this resist- 
ance or load, but are assisted by the pistons of the compen- 
sating-cylinders, so that, unless means were provided for 
preventing it, the last half of the stroke would be made with 
great violence. In pumping against heavy pressure there is 
also, of course, some danger that the force-main may burst, 
which, in case it should happen, would suddenly relieve the 
engine of the whole or a large part of its load, thus allowing 
the speed of the engine to become suddenly accelerated to 
such an extent as to be liable to occasion damage. 

The original or experimental engine had the compensating- 
cylinders placed between the steam- and water-ends, but at 
the conclusion of the experiments, which lasted several 



HIGH- DUTY PUMPING EXGIXES—DIRECT-ACTINC. 397 

months, the compensating-cylinders were changed from be- 
tween the steam- and water-end, and placed at the outer end 
of the water-cylinder, as shown in Fig. 243. There is also 
shown immediately above the compensating-cylinders an 
accumulator for securing the necessary pressure in the com- 
pensating system. 

The accumulator used is of the differential type ; it has 
below a small cylinder filled with water or oil, within which its 
plunger moves, while above it has a larger cylinder filled with 
air, and within which there is a piston-head which fits closely 
to the cylinder, and is at the same time attached to the top of 
the plunger in the lower cylinder. 

By this arrangement it will be seen that the pressure per 
square inch on the plunger or ram of the accumulator will be 
the pressure per square inch on the piston-head in the upper 
cylinder, multiplied by the difference between the area of the 
piston-head and the lower plunger. This difference of areas 
is a matter of calculation based upon the particular service 
for which the pump is constructed. The pressure in the air- 
cylinder is controlled by the pressure in the main delivery- 
pipe of the pump as it is connected to that pipe. This con- 
nection with the main has another very important use, as the 
power exerted by the compensating-cylinders is a very con- 
siderable part of the power used in driving the pump-plunger 
at the latter part of its stroke, and it will be seen that if, for 
any cause, either by the breaking of the main or otherwise, 
the load is entirely thrown off the pump ; the plunger cannot 
make a disastrous plunge forward, for the reason that the 
steam in the steam-cylinder is, by reason of its expansion, 
too low in pressure to drive it, while the fall of pressure in 
the main has robbed the accumulating-cylinders of their 
power. 

The practical working of the completed machine 

may be illustrated graphically as follows : The indicator dia- 
grams, Fig. 244, are from an engine of this type, the ratio of 

34 



393 



PUMPING MACHINERY, 



Fig. 244. 




Fig. 245. 




high- to low-pressure 
cylinders being; as 1 
to 4 in area. Re- 
taining the high- 
pressure lines, and 
multiplying the ver- 
tical low - pressure 
lines by 4 (the differ- 
ence in areas), there 
is had as a resultant 
the line of steam- 
effort shown in Fief. 
245. Immediately 
underneath this lat- 
ter illustration is a 
sketch showing five 
positions of the com- 
pensating - cylinders, 
corresponding to 
each quarter of the 
stroke from the be- 
ginning. Curved 
lines are drawn in 
this diagram, Fig. 
245, by one of which, 
in the lower left-hand 
corner, is shown the 
resistance of the com- 
pensating - cylinders 
to the forward piston- 
movement for the first 
half of the stroke, and 
in the lower right- 
hand corner is an- 
other curved line 
showing the effort 
of the compensating- 



HIGH- DUTY PUMPING EXG INKS— DIRECT-ACTING. 399 

cylinders in assisting the main piston's movement on the 
last half of the stroke. By deducting the resistances in the 
first half of the stroke, the steam line A B is effective only 
in A D. 

In the middle of the stroke the effort of the compensating- 
cylinders is ////, so that the resistance A C at the beginning of 
the stroke is o at half-stroke, or at the point E in the dia- 
gram ; but immediately on passing the centre of the stroke 
the effort of the compensating-cylinders gradually increases, 
as shown in the curved line EH, so that the steam-pressure 
EG at the end of the stroke is augmented by the compen- 
sator-effort EH, which two combined efforts give the terminal 
pressure EI, which is practically the same as at the beginning 
of the stroke. The combined effort on the water-plunger 
throughout the whole stroke, for the several ordinates in the 
diagram, is shown in the line D I. 

As a proof of the remarkable manner in which the com- 
pensating-cylinders do compensate for the irregular pressure 
of the steam as thus used, if a measurement be taken between 
the upper or steam curved line, and the lower, or compen- 
sating curved line, on any of the ordinates, in any part of the 
stroke, it will be found that the distance between these lines, 
which is the measure of the available power for driving 
the pump-plunger, is exactly the same as is the distance be- 
tween the upper and lower lines of the water-card on any or- 
dinate, in any part of the stroke of the pump. In fact, it may 
be said that the lines of power, as well as the lines of resist- 
ance, are practically parallel, and thus it is that there is ex- 
erted at all times just power enough and no more to force 
the water column along so quietly, so steadily, that on en- 
gines of this construction it has been found there is no 
possible use for an air-chamber on the delivery-mains ; and 
thus is the apparently paradoxical problem solved of pro- 
ducing a perfectly uniform motion and pressure in a steam- 
pump using steam-power variable to the last degree, and with- 
out the use of shafts, cranks, fly-wheels, or heavy vibrating 
beams. 



400 PUMPING MACHINERY. 

THE GR0SH0X HIGH-DUTY ENGINE. 

This is a recent invention by Mr. John A. Groshon, of 
New York City, and patented some three years ago. The 
invention has for its object the economic use of steam in a 
direct-acting pumping engine, and for the few machines thus 
far constructed it has, under test, demonstrated its fitness to 
take rank as a high-duty engine. 

A perspective view of a compound duplex pumping engine, 
fitted with Mr. Groshon's valve-gear and compensating-device, 
is shown in Fig. 246. The high- and low-pressure cylinders are 
arranged tandem on a bed-plate. The steam- and exhaust- 
valves are modifications of the Corliss type, and are so dis- 
posed in the cylinder-casting as to permit the employment of 
separate steam- and exhaust-ports, thus retaining the advan- 
tages of the five-ported cylinder. The steam-valves have a 
positive movement at the beginning of the stroke, and are 
released at the proper point of cut-off by an hydraulic regu- 
lator controlled by the water-pressure in the force-chamber, or 
delivery-main. Dash-pots are provided as in other types of 
releasing-gear. 

The compensating-device is arranged on a girder frame 
of I-beam form between the steam- and water-cylinders ; the 
compensating-cylinders are located in the pit below the engine- 
room floor. These latter cylinders are in communication 
with the main discharge-pipe from the pumps, and subject to 
the pressure of the same, either with or without multiplying 
device. Fig. 247 is a side elevation of this engine, showing 
the hvdraulic regulator and its connections, together with the 
compensating-cylinder. 

The levers and their connections being in the position 
illustrated in Fig. 248, it will be observed that the pressure 
within the cylinders 5 will, through the medium of the rods 
P, levers J/, rods/, and levers E, operate to oppose the move- 
ment of the piston-rod A during the first portions of its stroke, 




I— 1 

? 

4- 



-whf 



401 




^\1 



— 



_• 



4~- 




HIGH- DUTY PIMPING ENGINES— DIRECT- ACTING. 403 

or until the levers E have turned sufficiently to come at right 
angles to the piston-rod A, after which the pressure within the 
cylinders S, acting on the pistons T t will, through the system 
of levers and rods, operate to assist the movement of the said 
main piston-rod A. 

There are indicated by the dotted lines in the drawings the 
movements of the levers M and levers E, and also the extent 

Fig. 248. 




of the movement of the piston-rod Q while under pressure to 
permit the action of the rods/ under the force applied to the 
loneer arms of the levers M. It will be understood that during 
the first portion of the stroke of the main piston-rod the 



404 PUMPING MACHINERY. 

longer arms of the levers E will, through the rodsy, cause 
the levers M to rotate and bring their longer arms, with the 
rods P, upwards in the direction of the arrow or dotted line 
at the upper portion of Fig. 248, the effect being to draw the 
pistons T against the pressure within the cylinders 5, and 
thereby to transmit said pressure to the piston-rod A in a. line 
opposite to its movement during the first portion of its stroke ; 
and it will also be noted, upon following the movement of said 
levers and rods, that after the levers E have passed their centre 
the pressure within the cylinders S will be transmitted to the 
main piston-rod A in line with its movement, and thereby 
assist the same during the latter portion of its stroke. 

Dotted lines in the drawings illustrate arcs of two circles 
differing in diameter, one being long and flat, and the other 
of a greater curve. These indicate the lines of travel of the 
lower end of the rocking-lever E and of the rody. If the 
lever E and rod^ were allowed their natural movement from 
their points of suspension, they would travel on the arcs 
indicated by dotted lines in the drawings, and hence in oper- 
ation there must be either a force applied or the overcoming 
of a force to compensate for the difference between these two 
arcs, and this force is that which is transmitted to the piston- 
rod in line with its length. 

In the moving of the lower end of the lever E on its line 
of travel it is retarded by the rod/, which has a different line 
of travel, and to overcome this the piston in the auxiliary 
cylinder is compelled to rise and overcome the force from the 
accumulator to an extent which would turn the auxiliary lever 
M sufficiently to permit the lower end of the lever ^and the 
lower end of the rod J to travel on the same arc, although 
hung from different centres, and if left in their natural state 
would travel on different arcs. 

The indicator diagrams shown in Fig. 249 are from an 
engine having 12-inch high-pressure steam-cylinders, 24-inch 
low-pressure cylinders, water-plungers 18^ inches diameter, 
all of 18 inches stroke, using 75 pounds steam-pressure, and 



HIGH- DUTY PUMPING ENGINES— DIRECT- ACTING. 4°5 



Fig. 249. 



pumping against 70 pounds water-pressure. The scale of the 
upper diagram before reduction was 30 per inch, and that of 
the lower diagram 
was 12 per inch. 
These cards show a 
rate of steam expan- 
sion which promises 
well, other things 
being equal, for the 
future of this engine. 

The Davey 
High - Duty En- 
gine. — Mr. Henry 
Davey read a paper 
before the British 

Association (Section G) in 1887, entitled " Expansive Working 
in Direct-Acting Pumping Engines." The author commenced 
by referring to a paper previously read before the British As- 
sociation, in which the expansive method of working steam- 
pumps can be secured without the aid of a fly-wheel. The 
object of the paper under notice was to describe a more recent 
invention of his by means of which a far greater degree of 
expansion is made possible. 

When an engine has heavy reciprocating parts, such as long 

pump-rods or loaded plungers, expansive working is possible 

because of the inertia at the beginning and the momentum 

W V 2 
towards the end of the stroke, expressed by the formula 




By this method, for a considerable degree of expansion, a 
very high velocity must be given to the mass when the weight 
is small. In engines which have not long pump-rods it is not 
always convenient to provide weights sufficiently heavy to 
enable a high degree of expansion to be employed. The 
mechanism which Mr. Davey described equates the engine- 
power and pump-resistance, by causing decreasing pressure 
of the expanding steam on the piston of the engine to bring 



406 



PUMPING MACHINERY. 



a nearly constant force to bear on the pump throughout the 
stroke. By means of the annexed diagrams the action of the 
pump is made clear. 

The pump resistance is represented in Fig. 250 by the 
parallelogram c, a, b, d, and the engine-power diagram by the 
figure c, e,f, g, d ; and supposing the parts of the engine to 
have no weight, then means are required by which the piston 



e 


1 


r\ 


Fig. 250. 










a 


1 
1 

• 


1 

1 
1 

1 


!\* 


3 


& 


1 


I 


6 


5- 


1 \. 


1 

1 


1 
1 
1 
1 




















8 


a 














c7. 



of the engine may move with varying velocities relative to that 
of the pump-piston, exceeding the mean velocity by the ordi- 
nates 1, 2, 3, and falling short of that velocity by the ordinates 
4, 5, 6. 

Decreasing Velocity of Pump-Piston. — In Fig. 251, 
A is the engine, B the pump-piston, and C a triangular 
frame turning on the fulcrum D. The pump-piston is at- 











Fig. 251. 


A 








F 










O- 


\ 
\ 

D 1 


§^>xE 




tuufe 


2 




c /*r 












&/-—*> 









tached to the frame at the point E by means of a vibrating 
connecting-rod, and the engine-piston to the point Fhy means 
of a similar rod. While the engine is making its stroke in 



HIGH-DUTY PUMPING ENGINES— DIRECT-ACTING. 407 

the direction of the arrow, the pump-piston is decreasing in 
velocity relative to that of the engine-piston, the ratio being 
determined by the relative positions of E and F. 

Ratio of Expansion. — In applying this mechanism to 
pumping engines it is first necessary to determine the ratio of 
expansion to be employed, and then to see how nearly the 
force and resistance can be equated. In Fig. 252, a, b, c y d, e 
are the combined diagrams of a compound engine working 



Fig. 252. 




with the given ratio of expansion a,f,g, e, the diagram of effects 
of the varying velocities of the engine and pump-pistons, and 
a, h, i, e, the pump-resistance diagram. Then acceleration of 
velocity takes place from h c } and, knowing the weight of the 
moving parts, the acceleration may be calculated. It will at 
once be seen that the mechanical advantage obtained by this 
mechanism greatly reduces the acceleration for a given mass. 

Clearance. — In answering the discussion which followed 
the reading of this paper, and speaking on the variation in 
length of stroke, Mr. Davey said that all direct-acting engines 
have the stroke controlled by the action of valve-gear, and 
depend on the adjustment of the gear for clearance. The 
engine described might have 8 feet to 10 feet length of stroke, 
and work safely to 1 inch of the covers, or in special cases 
even less ; but that was a fair allowance. The Cornish engine 
had a higher economy than any engine working with the 
same ratio of expansion, but the clearance there would be 2 



408 PUMPING MACHINERY. 

inches to 3 inches. The economy in such cases had always 
been a puzzle to him. With a pressure of 30 pounds to 40 
pounds and four expansions, there would be an equal effect to 
a rotative engine working with eight expansions and a press- 
ure three or four times as great. Rotative engines were made 
for pumping under the sentimental notion that they were more 
economical on account of less clearance. But it must be 
remembered that a rotative engine must be designed to meet 
the worst condition of work, and therefore could not, from 
the nature of their design, take the full advantage, that might 
otherwise be obtained, of more favorable conditions. A rota- 
tive engine must depend for its expansion on the number of 
revolutions, and mining engineers, to take one, instance, must 
work sometimes at slow speeds, and the energy of the fly- 
wheel was not then enough to work with a large degree of 
expansion. For this reason rotative mining engines do not 
in practice always work expansively ; though direct-acting 
pumping engines are always at their maximum expansion, 
whatever speed they may be working at. 

Fielding's High-Duty Engine. — The publication of Mr. 
Davey's paper was the occasion of a letter addressed to 
Engineering by Mr. John Fielding, in which he says that 
he does not doubt that the arrangement described by Mr. 
Davey as " a recent invention of the author" was so described 
in good faith, and without the knowledge that it had been 
previously invented. Nevertheless, a search through the 
patent records would have convinced Mr. Davey that Field- 
ing's patent, No. *]%%, of 1874, most clearly anticipated him. 
Mr. Fielding enclosed a tracing showing the action of his 
compensating-gear as applied in one form of pumping engine, 
which is reproduced in Figs. 253 and 254. 

Mr. Fielding's object was to enable engines to be worked 
expansively (without necessitating heavy masses to be put in 
motion), for the purpose of absorbing surplus energy during 
the first part and of giving it out during the last part of the 
stroke, with the end of obtaining an approximately constant 



HIGH- DUTY PUMPING ENGINES— DIRECT-ACTING. 4-09 




O 





\y 



^1 I 



W,VM//MsM/>& 



%& 



35 



4IO PUMPING MACHINERY. 

pressure on the pump-piston throughout the whole of the 
stroke, while having a varying pressure on the steam-piston, 
resulting from the expansion of the steam after the supply 
had been cut off. 

Fig. 253 shows a longitudinal section and Fig. 254 a side 
elevation of one form of Mr. Fielding's invention. Two 
pistons, A B, work within the cylinder C, and attached to 
these are two pump-rams, D E, working through stuffing- 
boxes in the cylinder-covers into pumps F G. A rod, H, 
connecting to piston B, extends through centre of ram D, 
terminating in a cross-head, 7, working within a slot formed 
in ram D. 

A similar cross-head,/, is formed on ram D. . / and / are 
connected by side-rods to quadrants K K in such a manner 
that piston A drives ram F, while B drives D, and the quad- 
rants K K are so proportioned that at the commencement of 
a stroke the speed of the piston will be relatively smaller than 
that of the ram, say about one-half; at half-way the speeds 
will be equal, while at the end of the stroke the speed of the 
piston will be double that of the ram. 

These relative speeds correspond roughly to the proportions 
shown on tracing, but the levers may be proportioned to suit 
various degrees of expansion. The drawing shows a single 
cylinder only ; the compound principle would greatly reduce 
the variations in the pressure on the steam-pistons, and so 
reduce the difficulty of equalizing them. 

Mr. Fielding's patent, not having been kept up, is void, and 
the arrangement is therefore public property. Mr. Fielding 
takes occasion to say in his communication, that, compared 
with the ingenious compensating motion introduced by the 
Worthington Pumping Engine Company, his had the advan- 
tage of directness and simplicity, seeing that it involves the 
use of no extra cylinders, stuffing-boxes, or reservoirs. 



HIGH- D UTY PUMPING ENGINES— FL Y- WHEEL. 4 I * 



CHAPTER XIX. 

HIGH-DUTY PUMPING ENGINES — FLY-WHEEL. 

The high degree of economy attained by some engines of 
this type over ordinary direct-acting, and the general run of 
crank and fly-wheel pumps, is due to the design and construc- 
tion of the steam-engine portion of the machine ; the use of 
a high initial steam-pressure, together with the advantages 
which may be secured by a liberal steam-expansion in two or 
more cylinders, may be accepted as the real reason for the 
high degree of efficiency which engines of this type have 
developed. 

A comparative diagram of steam-expansions has already 
been given, together with a simple explanation so far as relates 
to steam-pressures; the consideration of the steam-engine as a 
heat-engine is not entered upon, it being quite foreign to our 
present purpose, which is more especially with water-end de- 
sign than with that of the steam-end. 

The degree of refinement to which steam-engine design has 
been carried seems to leave but little more to be accomplished 
in that direction. 

The enormous loss often referred to in recounting the dif- 
ference between the known energy of coal and the net result 
of the best type of steam-engine is, in the present state of the 
art, wholly outside of the province of the engineer to correct. 
The heat rejected by the furnace cannot, except in minor 
quantity, be economically recovered, and must, therefore, be 
considered as one of the unavoidable losses which accompany 
the generation of steam. Mr. J. T. Henthorn contributed, 
in Vol. XII., " Transactions of the American Society of 
Mechanical - Engineers," the results of a test of a triple- 



412 PUMPLXG MACHIXERY. 

expansion engine, showing an indicated horse-power for 
each 12.94 pounds of steam per hour, the engine developing 
~ : }2 H. P. In the discussion which followed the reading of 
this paper, Mr. George H. Barrus, the efficient chairman of the 
Duty-Trial Committee of the above society, who recommends 
that the economy of a pumping engine be referred to heat- 
units rather than to coal and water consumption, worked out 
these quantities roughly during the meeting, in which he made 
the number of thermal units consumed per I. H. P. per hour 
14.038, and the quantity consumed per minute 234. This 
may be taken as representing the best modern practice in 
steam-engine performance; some tests recording as low r as 
12.6 pounds of steam per I. H. P. per hour are reported, but 
taken altogether, 1 3 pounds may be said to fairly represent the 
best steam economy at this time. 

The simple fact that a w r ater-end is operated by an engine 
having an automatic or adjustable cut-off does not make it a 
high-duty engine. There are pumping engines thus equipped 
now in use in water-w r orks pumping stations in which the 
average duty is no greater than could be had by the employ- 
ment of a simpler and cheaper type of compound direct- 
actinsr engine. 

A high-duty engine must be designed for the particular 
service required of it, so that the adaptation of the steam to 
the water-end shall be one favorable to high economy. The 
steam-pressure usually determines the number of cylinders to 
be used. For steam-pressures averaging 100 pounds the 
engine would be compound, the engine having one high and 
one low-pressure cylinder, or one high and two low-pressure 
cylinders; the latter is sometimes employed in three-cylinder 
pumps. For steam-pressures averaging 150 pounds, the 
engine would be arranged for triple expansion, the work in 
the three cylinders being distributed approximately, thus : the 
150 pounds (total pressure) in the first cylinder, 60 pounds 
initial pressure in the intermediate cylinder, the third or low- 
pressure cylinder having an initial pressure of 20 pounds, 
exhausting against a back-pressure of say 3 pounds above 



HIGH- DUTY PUMPING ENGINES— FL Y- WHEEL. 4 1 3 

the vacuum ; this would make a fair distribution of tempera- 
tures, and would be productive of good results if properly- 
applied. 

Three pumping engines have been selected for illustra- 
tion, — viz. : 

1. A single, vertical, bucket- and plunger-pump, designed 
by Mr. E. D. Leavitt, Jr., and erected at Lynn, Mass. 

2. A pair of horizontal, double-acting plunger-pumps, de- 
signed by Mr. George H. Corliss, and erected at Pawtucket, 
R. I. 

3. A vertical, triple expansion, single-acting plunger-pump, 
designed by Mr. Edwin Reynolds, and erected at Chicago, 
111. * 

The Leavitt Compound Pumping Engine.— A com- 
pound rotative pumping engine, designed by Mr. E. D. Leavitt, 
Jr., for the city of Lynn, Mass., is shown in sectional elevation 
in Fig. 255. In this engine the steam-cylinders are placed 
very nearly under the main centre of the beam, and are in- 
clined outwardly, at the proper angle to connect with the 
dependent projections cast on the beam, the low-pressure 
cylinder being connected in the pump-end of the beam, and 
the high-pressure to the opposite or crank-end. The pistons 
thus have opposite movements ; and the connections between 
the cylinders, for carrying the steam from the high-pressure to 
the low, are very short and direct. The strain on the beam 
is, by this construction, reduced to a minimum. The top of 
the high-pressure cylinder exhausts into the top of the low- 
pressure cylinder, and the bottom of the high-pressure cylin- 
der exhausts into the bottom of the low-pressure cylinder. A 
single valve controls the connection between the two cylinders 
at the bottom, while two valves are used in the connection at 
the top, one close to each cylinder, so that the capacity of 
this passage is not added to the clearance of the high-pressure 
cylinder when being filled with steam, nor is it exhausted when 
the low-pressure cylinder is being exhausted. It thus an- 

35* 



4M 



pusipi:::- . : :hixer y. 



:rs. in some measure, to the reservoir of a compound 
marine engine. Both cylinders are steam-jacketed at sides 
and ends, and, together with the steam-connections, are 
clothed with asbestos covering, and lagged with black walnut. 

Fig. 255. 




In general appearance the high-pressure cylinder approxi- 
mates the diameter of the low-pressure cylinder ; this is due 
to the fact that the lagging has been kept away from the body 
of the cylinder, an air-space being thus formed between the 
two. 



HIGH-DUTY PUMPING ENGINES-FLY-WHEEL. 415 

All the steam-valves are of the gridiron form, and are 
moved by revolving cams, which have grooves of the proper 
shape cut in their sides, in which run steel rollers on pins 
projecting from the sides of rocker-arms. Those for the 
high-pressure steam-valves are composed of two disks, fitted 
closely together, but not attached. One of these disks, for 
the opening movement, is keyed fast to the cam-shaft, and 
has its outer edge of the proper shape to open the valve, so 
as to give it the required lead ; the other, for the closing 
movement, has on its inner side a projecting lip, whose in- 
terior edge has the proper shape to move the rocker-arm so 
as to close the valve. This latter plate is not keyed rigidly to 
the cam-shaft, but is driven by a double feather working in a 
slot cut in its boss parallel with the bore, and also working in 
a slot cut in the shaft at an angle with the axis, so that any 
motion given to the feather in the line of shaft changes the 
relative position of the cam with its shaft, and consequently 
with the crank, thereby causing steam to be cut off earlier or 
later. The motion is imparted to the feather by the governor. 

The air-pump is double-acting, and worked by a connection 
with the beam. The discharge from the hot well is into the 
pump-well, and the boiler feed-water is drawn from the hot 
well by an independent steam-pump. 

The pump is of the Thames Ditton variety, bucket and 
plunger type. There is a supplementary pipe and valves to 
reduce the friction incident to the passing of the water through 
a single bucket-valve in the piston. The valves are of the 
usual double-beat form ; the bottom, or foot-valves, are seven 
in number, the upper valves three, — one in the piston and two 
in the supplementary passage ; each of the exterior bottom 
valves has an independent cover on the chamber for the 
readier inspection and removal of the valves. To supply air 
to the air-chamber there is a small air-cock on the lower 
valve-chamber. The air drawn in through this cock on the 
up-stroke of the pump somewhat reduces the quantity of 
water discharged by the pump. Careful experiments, pre- 



41 6 PUMPING MACHINERY, 

vious to and in the early part of the test, established the effect 
of this cock by measurements at the weir, and a uniform 
opening of this cock was kept during forty-eight hours of the 
trial. During the other four hours the average loss of action 
was a trifle less than during the forty-eight hours, during one 
hour the cock being completely closed. 

The water is drawn by the pump from a large well supplied 
by a main from the collecting-pOnd, and discharged through 
a 20-inch force-main. This main is of cast iron for a portion 
of its length, thence by a cement-lined sheet-iron pipe of the 
same diameter to the bottom of a gate-house in the service- 
reservoir. During the experiment it was thence conducted 
by a vertical cast-iron pipe of sufficient height to discharge 
into a wooden trunk, connected with a weir-box, where the 
capacity of the pump was determined. 

The principal dimensions are shown in the following 
table : 

Diameter of high-pressure cylinder 17^ inches. 

" low-pressure cylinder 36 " 

" high-pressure piston-rods 3 " 

" low-pressure piston-rods 3f " 

" air-pump \\\ " 

" pump-barrel 2 ^\§ " 

" plunger i8| " 

" bottom and supplementary valves, out- 
side lower seat 15 g- " 

" bottom and supplementary valves, in- 
side upper seat , 10 " 

" piston-valve, outside lower seat .... 22 " 

" " inside upper seat .... \d\ " 

" fly-wheel 26J feet. 

Length of stroke of steam- and water-pistons .... 7 " 

" " air-pump 44| inches. 

Distance between end-centres of the beam .... II feet. 

Steam-lead, high-pressure cylinder, top o 

" " bottom .... o 

'' low-pressure cylinder, top o 

" " " bottom .... y 1 ^ inch. 

Exhaust-lead, high-pressure cylinder, top tV " 

" " " bottom ... T \ " 



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HIGH-DUTY PUMPING ENGINES— FLY-WHEEL. 435 

movable independent of the others, or permitting the removal 
of a single valve without disturbing a cage. These cages are 
held in place by a single bronze tap-bolt extending through 



Fig. 262. 




the centre of the cage and screwing into a bridge cast in the 
valve-chamber, as shown in Figs. 260 and 262. 

The air- and feed-pumps are driven by an arm attached to 
the low-pressure plunger, thus giving them the same stroke 
as the main pumps. The height of the engine above the 
main floor is about 35 feet, and the depth of pump-pit is 35 
feet, making a total height of 70 feet. 

The weight of one engine complete with its pumps is 450 
tons. At Chicago two of these engines are in operation at 
the West Harrison Street Station and three in the new station 
at Fourteenth Street. The Harrison Street engines have been 
in operation about two years and a half; the Fourteenth Street 



43^ 



PUMPING MACHINERY. 



engines have recently been put in operation on the comple- 
tion of the new four-and-a-half-mile intake tunnel. These 
engines have a nominal capacity of 15,000,000 gallons each, 
against a head of 125 feet, when running at a speed of about 
16 revolutions per minute, and have a guaranteed capacity 
of 18,000,000 gallons in 24 hours under the same head. 

Duty-Trial. — A test of the Harrison Street engines made 
by Mr. Bernard Fiend, assistant engineer of Chicago, in Octo- 
ber, 1 89 1, showed the following results: 



Duration of test, from 8.45 A.M. to 4.45 P.M 

Total revolutions of No. I engine 

" " No. 2 " 

" " both engines 

Average " No. I engine . 

" " No. 2 " 

" " both engines 

" steam-pressure 

" " in first receiver 

" " in second receiver, atmosphere 

" vacuum in inches 

Total head of water pumped against 

Water fed to boilers, 197 barrels, at 400 pounds each 

plus 163 pounds 

Average temperature of feed-water 

Total coal burned 

Total ashes 

Per cent, of ash 

Actual evaporation from"ii5° 

Evaporation from 21 2° . . . 

" " per pound of combustible . . . 
Total number of U. S. gallons pumped by both engines 
" " pounds of water pumped by both en- 
gines at 8.34 pounds per gallon . . 
Total net foot-pounds of work done by both engines . 
Duty per 1006 pounds of feed- water on plunger dis- 
placement 

Net duty after allowing 2 per cent, for slip and leakage 
Average indicated horse-power of No. 1 engine . . . 

" " " No. 2 engine . . . 

" total indicated horse-power of both engines . 
Water per hour per indicated horse-power 



8 hours. 


7,972 


8,042 


16,014 


16.608 per min. 


16.754 « 


16.681 " 


124 86 pounds. 


25-83 " 


Zero. 


270 inches. 


126.65 feet - 


78,963 pounds. 


115 deg. F. 


10,975 pounds. 


1,408 " 


12.83 per cent 


7.195 pounds. 


8.238 " 


9-45 " 


10,511,348 gallons. 


87,664,640 " 


1,087,822,390 ft. lbs. 


140,416,679 " 


137,608,346 " 


388.5 H. P. 


390.2 " 


778.7 " 


12.675 pounds. 



HIGH-DUTY PUMPING ENGINES— FLY-WHEEL. 437 



Reference to the indicator diagrams taken during the test, 
average samples of which are reproduced on smaller scale in 

Fig. 263. 




HP 





INT.P 





LP 




Fig. 263, together with the combined diagram Fig. 264, 
will show how close the actual expansion of steam conformed 

Fig. 264. 




to the theoretical, and probably no better results have ever 
been attained under similar conditions. 

As an illustration of the economy of this type of engine in 
every-day operation under ordinary conditions of service, it is 

37* 



43 8 PUMPING MACHINERY. 

reported that the 18,000,000-gallon engine of this type in the 
Milwaukee Works, already referred to, attains a monthly duty 
of about 120,000,000 foot-pounds for each 100 pounds of coal 
burned for all purposes without deductions of any kind, the 
coal burned being only a fair quality of anthracite, and the 
boilers being of the ordinary horizontal tubular type, evapo- 
rating about 8^ pounds of water per pound of coal. 



INDEX. 



A. 

Accumulator, 162. 

friction in, 165. 
Acid water, effect of, 290. 
Air, clearing pumps of, 112. 

quantity to resist shock, 118. 
Air- and vacuum- chambers, 90. 
Air-chamber, fire-pump, 282. 

lined with wood, 310. 

mine-pump, 295. 

pressure-pump, 164. 
Air-pump, bucket and piston, 26. 

for air-chambers, 93. 

for condenser, 27. 
American Society of Mechanical Engi- 
neers, 71, 321, 334, 363. 
Andrews's centrifugal pump, 357. 
Annular valve, 64. 
Appold's centrifugal pump, 335. 
Area of steam-ports, 237. 

for valve-seats, 84. 
Artesian-well pump, 223. 
Assoc. Fac. Mut. Ins. Co., 271-288. 
Atmospheric pressure, 9. 
Atmospheric pump, 10. 
Automatic relief for pressure-pumps, 
169 

sprinklers, 274. 
Auxiliary throttle-valves, 316. 

B. 

Ball-valve, 55. 

with metal core, 56. 
Barrus, George H., 346, 412. 
Bell- valve, 55. 

Berrenberg rotary pump, 226. 
Bessemer works, pumps for, 167. 
Birkenbine, H. P. M., quoted, 175. 
Bjorling, P. R., quoted, 53. 



Blake valve motion, 204. 
Boiler performance, 363. 

test by Prof. Unwin, 382. 

tests and duty-trials, 362. 

form recommended, 363. 
Boilers, Pawtucket Water- Works, 422. 

heat used and lost in, 384. 

Lynn Water- Works, 417. 
Brass-covered piston-rods, 277. 
Brewery-pump, 145. 
Brick-earth, pumping, 189. 
Bucket- and piston-pump, 33. 
Bucket- and plunger-pump, 32. 
Bucket-piston for air-pump, 26. 
Bucket-pump, ball- valve, 25. 

mitre-valve, 25. 
Bucket-pumps, 23. 

Buffalo Stm.-Pump Co., Mine P'ps, 304. 
Built-up wing-valve, 67. 
Bushings for valve-seats, 82. 
Bushing stuffing-boxes, 45. 

for plunger, example, 309. 
Butterfly-valve, 51. 
By-pass connection, 145. 



Calorimetric value of coal, 383. 
Cameron, A. S., 387. 
Cameron's high-duty engine, 387. 
sinking-pump, 291. 
valve motion, 203. 
valve-seats, .61. 
Cataract for steam-pumps, 220. 
Centrally-packed plunger-pump, 3r, 142. 
Centrifugal force in pumps, 338. 
pumps, 334. 

and engine, 354. 
blades for, 336. 
casing for, 337. 

439 



440 



INDEX. 



Centrifugal pumps, concave arm wing, 

35 1 - 

design, 337. 

double suction, 253. 

dredging, 354. 

effect of high rotation, 340. 

hollow arm piston, 351. 

in series, 360. 

piston for sand, 352, 354. 

pistons, forms of, 351. 

speed, Morris Machine Works, 

356. 
whirling in, 336. 
Charging- pipe, 122. 
Check-valve, 122. 

Chicago Water - Works, Reynolds's 
pumping-engine, 430. 
arrangement of pumps, 432. 
duty- trial, 436. 
section of pump, 433. 
valves and cages, 434. 
Circular steam-valves, 253. 
Clack-valves, 47. 

and supplemental valve, 49. 
experience with, 48. 
fulcrum for, 52. 
hinged, 51. 
lift of, 52. 
Clarkson valve motion, 207. 
Classification of pumps, II. 
Clearance, steam-cylinder, 280, 407. 
Coal, calorimetric value of, 383. 
Cold-rolled steel, 37. 
Cold-water valves, 56. 
Coles, H. J., quoted, 1 19. 
Collars for plunger-rods, 43. 
Combined foot-valve and strainer, 104. 
Compensators. (See High-Duty At- 
tachment.) 
Compound cylinders, ordinary sizes, 250. 
ratios, 249. 
stuffing-box, 245. 
engine piston-rods, 240. 

power of, 256. 
isochronal pump, 262. 
mine-pumps, 314. 



Compound mine-pumps, Buffalo, 304. 
Jeanesville, 313. 
Knowles, 305. 
pressure.-pump, 168. 
pump, Tangyes's, 259. 
pumps, duty-trial, duplex, 370. 
fly-wheel, 372. 
duplex performance, 251. 
high-service attachment, 237. 
intermediate head, 238. 
single, direct-acting pump, 224. 
steam-pumps, 235. 

action of steam in, 245. 
arrangement of, 240. 
tank-engine, 254. 
Concentric ring-valve, 87. 
Conical mitre-valve,. 53. 

springs, 60. 
Corliss, George H., 269, 413. 

pumping-engine, Pawtucket, 252, 
418. 
Cornish double-beat valves, 70-77. 
pumping-engine, 310. 
clearance in, 407. 
Cost of dredging with centrifugal pump, 

359- 

of fire-pumps, 287. 

of pumping earth, 190. 
Cranes, hydraulic power for, 168. 

pressures in, 152. 
Crank, advantages claimed for, 175. 
Crank-pumps, 173. 

details, 182. 

diagram of effort, 176. 

geared, 197. 

Goodbrand & Co., 185. 

Guild & Garrison, 184. 

single, 190. 

slotted cross-head, 184. 

strength for, 174. 

valve areas for, 175. 

without fly-wheel, 178. 

Woodward's, 183. 
Cross-head for compound engine, 243. 
Cup-leathers, mould for making, 17. 

packed piston, 16. 



INDEX. 



44 1 



( lushion-valves, 2S0. 
Cylinders, arrangement of comp., 240. 
lagging of, 253. 

D. 

Dash relief-valve, 228, 237, 2S0. 
Davey, Henry, 405. 

high-duty engine, 405. 
Davidson triple-expansion engines, 264. 
valve-motion, 212. 
valve-seats, 61. 
Davies, J. D., 390. 

high-duty engine, 390. 
Davis, E. F. C, quoted, 321. 
Dean Brothers' valve motion, 209. 
Deane's sinking-pump, 291. 
Deep-well pump, 223. 
Delivery-pipes, size of, 107. 
Denton, Prof. J. E., 39. 

on steam-jackets, 253. 
Differential plunger- pump, 143. 
Dimensions, Corliss engine, Pawtucket, 
421. 

Leavitt engine, Lynn, 416. 

Reynolds's engine, Chicago, 431. 
Direct-acting mine pump, 295. 

steam-pumps, 200. 
Disk-valves, 56. 
Double-beat valves, Cornish, 70. 

India-rubber valves, 70. 
Double-plunger pressure-pump, 169. 
Drainage of steam-jackets, 251. 
Drainage-pipe, 151. 
Dredging by centrifugal pumps, 355. 

General Gillmore on, 357. 
Drip-cocks, 284. 
Duplex pumps, 226. 

fire-pumps, 272. 

mine-pumps, 297. 

sinking-pump, 294. 

steam-valves, 229. 

tanking, 254. 

valve-adjustment, 230. 

valve-gear, 227. 

valve-movement, 233. 
Duty- trials of pumping engines, 361. 



Duty-trials of pumping engines, com- 
pound duplex, 370. 
By-wheel, 372. 
duration of test, 375. 
engine performance. 367. 
English method, 376. 
guaranteed performance, 374. 
Lynn pumping engine, 418. 
measuring work done, 366. 
Milwaukee pumping engine, 438. 
Pawtucket pumping engine, 423- 

429. 
plunger displacement, 366. 
quantity of work done, 366. 
standard proposed, 363. 
Worthington engine, 385. 

E. 

Easy-seating water-valve, 63. 
Eccentric, Woodward pump, 184. 
Eccentrics for pumps, 195. 
Efficiency, Appold's pump, 340. 

centrifugal pump, ^J. 

curves, Webber, 343. 

Gwinne pump, 340. 

large centrifugal pumps, 349. 

loss of, in pumps, 149. 

rotary pumps, 331. 

24-inch centrifugal pump, 346. 
Electrical pump, 198. 
Ellis, G. A., quoted, 108. 
Engine, efficiency, 412. 
Engineering News, quoted, 256, 264. 
English method duty- trials, 376. 
Erste Briinner Masch. Fab. Pump, 136. 
Evaporation assumed, duty-trials, 362. 
Expansion diagrams, 179. 
Expansive use of steam, 177. 

F. 

Factor of safety, 277. 

piston-rods, 38. 

pressure-pumps, 163. 
Farcot's centrifugal pumps, 350. 
Fastening piston-rods, 40. 
Fielding, John, high-duty engine, 408. 
Fiend, Bernard, duty-test by, 436. 



442 



IXDEX. 



Final results of boiler-trial, 363. 
Fire-pumps, 271. 

air-chamber, 282. 

brass fitting of, 277. 

capacity of, 274. 

commercial sizes, 275. 

cost, 287. 

duplex, 272. 

force-valves, 278. 

H. P. required for, 273. 

hose connections, 285. 

necessary fittings, 287. 

pipe sizes, 281. 

piston pattern, 276. 
speed, 99. 

plunger pattern, 276. 

pressure-gauge, 283. 

priming-pipes, 284. 

ratio of steam to water, 276. 

safety-valve, 283. 

size-plate, 276. 

sizes recommended, 273. 

speed of, 274. 

steam-ports, 279. 

strength of parts, 277. 

suction-valves, 278. 

test for acceptance, 285. 

vacuum- chamber, 281. 
Fire-stream, size and capacity, 274. 
Five ports in duplex cylinders, 226. 
Flanging machines, pressures in, 152. 
Flow of water into a pump, 96, 1 14. 
Floyd and Morton's steam-end, 259. 
Fly-wheel, function of, 178. 

pumping engines, 411. 
Foot-valve and strainer, 103. 

multiple, 105. 

relief-valve, 104. 

single disk, 105. 
Force of impact in pumps, 339. 
Form of air-chamber, 91. 
Foundry-lifts, pressures in, 152. 
Four-seated valve, 80. 
Freeman, John R., 287. 
Friction in hydraulic machines, 165. 

loss, table of, 108. 



Frictional resistance of water, 1 50. 
Fulcrum for clack-valves, 52. 

G. 

Gain by compounding, 235. 
Geared crank-pump, 197. 
pressure-pump, 167. 
pump with eccentrics, 195. 
Gillmore, General Q. A , quoted, 357. 
Goodbrand & Co. crank-pump, 185. 
Gordon isochronal compound pump, 
262. 
valve motion, 218. 
Green, Howell, quoted, 310. 
Greindl rotary pump, 329. 
Grooved water-piston, 19. 
Groshon, John A , 400. 

high-duty engine, 400. 
Guaranteed performance of pumping 

engine, 374. 
Guild and Garrison crank-pump, 184. 

valve motion, 215. 
Gun-metal-lined mine-pump, 308. 
Gwinne pump, efficiency of, 340. 
tests, 350. 

H. 

Hale, R. A., quoted, 331. 
Heat-units, a base for duty-trials, 363. 
Heat used and lost in boilers, 384. 
Hemispherical valve-guard, 60. 
Henthorn, J. I., quoted, 411. 
High-duty attachment, Cameron's de- 
vice, 387. 

Davey's device, 405. 

Davies's device, 390. 

Fielding's device, 408. 

Groshon's device, 400. 

"Worthington's device, 393. 
High-service attachment, 237. 
Hill, John W., quoted, 256. 
Hinged clack-valve, 51. 
Hippopotamus leather, 48. 
Holly, A. L., quoted, 167. 
Horizontal strainer, 102. 
Hot water, pumping, 119. 



INDEX. 



443 



Hot-water valves, 56. 
Hydraulic elevator service, 13. 

engines, 165. 

pressure-pumps, 152. 

pressures, notes on, 153. 

pump, water-end, 155. 

transmission of power, 164. 
Hyp>erbolic logarithms, 1 So. 

I. 

India-rubber disk-valves, 56. 
Indicator diagram, pump, 50. 
Inside-packed plunger-pump, 29, 138. 
Intermediate cylinder-head, 238. 
head with stuffing-box, 245. 
Irrigating machinery, Pacific coast, 360. 
Isochronal pumping engine, 262. 

J- 

Jamb-nuts, 44. 

Jeanesville mine-pump, 313. 
Joints for mine-pipes, 324. 

K. 

Knowles compound mine pump, 305. 
piston mine-pump, 296. 
valve motion, 201. 

L. 

Lagging steam-cylinders, 253. 
Lawrence, Mass., pumping engine, 269. 

Mach. Co. centrifugal pump, 344. 
Leaking suction-pipes, 100. 
Leather-faced wing-valve, 53. 
Leather for packings, 18. 
Leathers for clack-valves, 47. 
Leavitt, E. D., Jr., 269, 413. 

compound pumping engine, 413. 
Length of pump-stroke, 126. 
Lift of butterfly-valves, 52. 

of clack-valves, 52. 
Limit of suction, 10. 
Lining piston-pumps, 20. 

mine-pumps, gun-metal, 298, 308. 
wood, 308. 

removable, 22. 
Loss of efficiency in pumps, 149. 



Lost motion in duplex pumps, 229. 

Lost-motion links, 230. 

Lubricating compound mine-pumps, 

296. 
Lynn, Mass., pumping engine, 413. 

M. 

McCarty's centrifugal pump, 335. 
McCreath, James, quoted, no, et seq. 
Machines for raising water, 7. 
Mair, John G., quoted, 176. 
Marsh valve motion, 273. 

water-valve, 63. 
Mean pressure of steam, 181. 
Mechanically-operated valves, 88. 
Metal disk-valve, 58. 
Metallic packings for pump-rods, 46. 
Metal rings for water-pistons, 18. 

used for mine-pumps, 289. 
Milwaukee pumping-engine duty, 438. 
Mine-pumps, 289. 

arrangement of, 307. 

Buffalo S. P. Co., 304. 

centrally packed, 300, 302. 

compound, 314. 

duplex, 297. 

electrical, 199. 

end-plungers, 303. 

lined, gun-metal, 298, 308. 
wood, 308. 

lubricating piston of, 296. 

multiple valves for, 302. 

piston-pattern, 299. 

plungers, 318. 

pot-valve chambers, 306. 

rods, 300. 

rotative, 408. 

single, 295. 

valve-area, 302. 

valve-chambers, 309, 321. 

valve-seats, 62, 300. 

valves, 300, 319. 

water-ends, 311. 
Mine- water, action on metals, 319. 
effects of, 290. 

pipes, 324. 



444 



INDEX. 



Mitre-valve, conical, 53. 
Montreal sewage-pumps, 346. 
Morris Machine-Works, 351. 
Multiple-beat valve, 68. 

N. 

Nagle, A. F., quoted, 71. 
Noisy pumps, 87. 
Non-conductors for lagging, 253. 
Nozzle, size for fire-pump, 285. 

O. 

Outside-packed plunger-pump, 30, 139. 



Packed plunger-pump, 135. 
Packing a water-piston, 16. 
Parallel spiral springs, 60. 
Parsons, R. C, quoted, 334, et seq. 
Passages through, centrifugal pumps, 

337- 

Pawtucket pumping engine, 269. 
annual duty, 423. 
Denton's experiments, 424. 
flue-heater, 430. 
general arrangement, 425. 
performance of boilers, 363. 

of engine, 251. 
results, anthracite, 426. 

bituminous, 429. 
steam-jacket, 430. 
Perreaux's valve, 81. 
Pipe sizes, fire-pumps, 281. 
Piping a pump, 121. 
Piston water-end, removable lining, 130. 
Piston- and plunger-pump, 34. 

rods, 37. 
Piston-pump, ball-valves, 129. 
Erste Brunner, 136. 
for mine, 298. 
for thick stuff, 145. 
linings, 20. 

with wing- valves, 128, 145. 
Piston-rods, brass-covered, 277. 
compound engines, 240. 
fastenings, 40. 



Piston-rods, protected, 245. 
Piston-speed for pumps, 126. 

underwriter pump, 99. 
Pistons, cup-leathers, 16. 

fibrous packing, 15. 

fitted with wood, 19. 

lubrication of, 296. 

metal rings, 18. 

movement with crank, 174. 

with grooves, 19. 
Plunger and ring water-end. 137. 

and solid ring, 28. 

bushing, example of, 3C9. 

for mine-pumps, 300, 321. 
Plunger-pump, 27. 

centrally-packed, 31, 142. 

central diaphragm, 30. 

differential, 143. 

inside-packed, 29, 138. 

outside-packed, 139. 

outside tie-rods, 30. 

vertical, 144. 

water- end, 129. 

"Wortkington, 132. 
Plunger-rod fastenings, 40. 
Poillon, M., quoted, 328. 
Pot- valve chamber, 158. 
mine-pump, 305. 
number of, 16 1. 
Power for hydraulic engines, 165. 

hydraulic transmission of, 164. 

of compound pumping- engine, 
256. 

pressure-pumps, 169. 

required for pumping earth, 189. 
Power-pump, 195. 
Pressure affected by accumulator, 163. 

caused by shocks, 116. 
Pressure-gauge, fire-pump, 283. 
Pressure-pumps, 152. 

air-chambers for, 164. 

automatic relief, 169-171. 

compound, 168. 

design, 158. 

double plunger, 169. 

duplex, 167. 



INDEX, 



445 



Pressure-pumps, factors of safety in, 163. 

geared, 167. 

large water-ends, 162. 

materials for, 154. 

power, 169. 

valve and seat. 1 60. 
Pressures in hydraulic machines, 1 52. 

of water, table of, 124. 
Priming-pipes, 2S4. 
Priming-tank, tire-pump, 284. 
Protected piston-rod, 245. 
Pump, electrically driven, 198. 

speed of, 86. 
Pump-bucket for high pressure, 24. 
Pump-diagram, vacuum, 50. 
Pump-rod collars, 43. 

details, 40. 
Pump-valve, Corliss's, 421. 

Woodward's, 149. 
Pumps, clearing of air in, H 2. 

pressure caused by shocks, 116. 

varieties of, 8. 
Pumping brick earth, 189. 

engines, duty of, 361. 

hot water, 1 19. 

R. 

Radial force in centrifugal pumps, 339. 
Raising water above suction limit, 10. 
Ratios of H. P and L. P. cylinders, 249. 
Rectangular-valve, double-seating, 67. 
Relief-valve and pipe, 122. 

for foot-valve, 104. 
Removable lining, 22. 
Revolutions, duplex, defined, 274. 
Reynolds, Edwin, 413. 
Reynolds's triple-expansion engine, 430. 
Rhinoceros leather, 48. 
Richards, John, 360. 
Riedler, A., 87. 

Riveting, increase of pressure in, 163. 
Rood, Vernon H., 313. 
Rotary pumps, 325. 

classification of, 326. 

design, 327. 

efficiency, 328-331. 



Rotary pumps, failures, causes, 328. 

objections to, 326. 
Rotative engines for pumping, 408. 
Rumsey & Co. rotary pump, 326. 

S. 

Sand, proportion pumped by centrifugal 

pumps, 358. 
Sand-pumps, 352. 
Sewage-pump, centrifugal, 346. 
Shand, Mason & Co. pump, 190. 
Shears, hydraulic, pressures in, 152. 
Shock in pumps, 116. 
Side-pipe and strainer, 102. 
Simpson, James & Co., 376. 
Simpson's lubricating piston, 296. 
Single-crank engine, without fly-wheel, 

190. 
Single mine- pumps, 295. 
Sinking-pumps, 290. 

Cameron's, 291. 

Deane's, 291. 

Worthington's. 294. 
Size of air-chamber, 92. 

for steel piston-rods, 38. 

of vacuum-chamber, 96. 

of valves, 84. 
Slide-valve, duplex, adjustments, 280. 
Slide-valves, circular, 253. 
Slotted cross head, 184. 
Slurry-pump, 189. 
Specifications for fire-pump, 271. 
Speed and capacity of pumps, 127. 

of pumps, 86. 
Spindle-valve, 54. 
Springs, 58, 278. 
Steam, expansion of, 177. 

in compound cylinders, 245. 

mean pressure of, 18 1. 

per horse-power, 412. 
Steam- ends for trade-pumps, 13. 
Steam-jackets, 251. 

mine-pumps, 316. 

value of, 252. 
Steam-pipe, 122. 
Sleam-pipes for collieries, 321. 



38 



446 



INDEX. 



Steam-ports, area of, 237. 

in duplex pumps, 226. 

pressure for compounding, 235. 

pumps, direct-acting, 200. 

underwriter pump, 279. 
Steam-valves, circular, 253. 
Steel rods, strength of, 37. 
Sterk, A. Elink, quoted, 350. 
Sticking of valves, 279. 
Strainer and vacuum-chamber, 1 02. 
Strainers, 10 1. 

Stroke-gauge, duplex pump, 281. 
Stroke-table for pumps, 128. 
Stuffing-box bushings, 45. 
Stuffing-boxes, 44. 

for fire-pumps, 277. 
Submerged pump, mine, 316. 
Suction, 9. 
Suction-pipe, 122. 

enlargements in, 99. 

fire-pump, 281. 

loss of energy in, 112. 
Suction- and delivery-pipe, 98. 

practical limitations, no. 

valves, fire-pump, 278. 
Syringe, 9. 

T. 

Tandem compound cylinders, 236. 
Tangyes's compound pump, 259. 
Tank-engine, compound, 254. 

economy of, 256. 
Taper-taps for guard-nuts, 57. 
Teague, Henry, quoted, 48. 
Tensile strength, steel rods, 38. 
Test of underwriter pump, 285. 
Thermal units per horse-power, 412. 
Throttle-valves, 3 for large pumps, 316. 
Thurston, R. H., tests by, 39. 
Tie-rod collars, mine-pump, 317. 

flanges, mine-pump, 318. 
Tobin bronze, 39, 277. 
Top-guided valve, 66. 
Torricelli's experiments, 10. 
Triple-expansion engine, Davidson's, 
264. 
Reynolds's, 430. 



Troy valve, 65. 
Tuck's packing, 16. 
Tweddell, R. H., quoted, 153. 

U. 

Underwriter pump, 271. 

Unwin, W. C, quoted, 376, et seq. 

V. 

Vacuum-chamber, 96, 122, 281. 
and strainer, 102. 
in suction-pipe, 97. 
Vacuum diagram, pump, 50. 
Valve, annular, 64. 

area, ordinary, 84. 

crank-pumps, 175. 

mine-pumps-, 302. 
ball and cage, 55. 
bell, 55. 
butterfly, 51. 
cap, 58. 
chamber lined with wood, 309. 

mine-pump, 321. 
clack, 47. 

concentric ring, 87. 
conical mitre, 53. 
dash-relief, 228. 
double-beat, Cornish, 70. 

rubber, 70. 
easy-seating, 6^. 
four-seated, 80. 
gear, duplex, 227. 
guard, hemispherical, 60. 
guides, 65. 
india-rubber disk, 56. 
mechanically operated, 88. 
metal disk, 58. 
mine-pump, 319. 
motions, Blake's, 204. 

Cameron's, 203, 

Clarkson, 207. 

Davidson, 212. 

Dean Brothers, 209. 

Guild and Garrison, 215. 

isochronal, 218. 

Knowles, 201. 



IXDEX. 



447 



Valve motions. Marsh, 213. 

multiple-beat, 6S. 

Perreaux's, Si. 

size of, 84. 

top-guided, 66. 

Troy, the, 65. 

weighted, 83. 

wing, 52. 

curved, 53. 

with cataract, 220. 
Valve-plates, 5S. 
Valve-seat bushings, 82. 

and spindle, 57. 

dovetailed, 8^. 

fire-pumps, 279. 

inserted guard, 59. 

securing in place, 61. 
Valve-springs, 58. 
Valves, sticking of, 279. 
Velocity of flow in suction-pipe, 98. 
Vertical plunger-pump, 144. 

W. 

Water following pump-bucket, 1 13. 
frictional resistance, 150. 
loss of energy in flowing, 1 12 



Water, raising of, by suction, ill. 
Water-elevators, 8. 
Water-end design, 126. 

for crank-pump, 174. 

for mine-pump, 298, 317. 

for trade -pumps, 13. 
Water-pipe for mines, 324. 
Watson and Stillman, 170. 
Webber, W. O., quoted, 334, et seq. 
Weisbach, P. J., quoted, 112. 
Wing-valve, 52. 

built-up, 67. 

leather-face, 53. 
Wolff, Ernest, tank-engine, 255. 
Wood-lined air-chamber, 310. 

mine-pump, 308. 
Wood-packing for pistons, 20. 
Woodward pump, 183. 

valve, 149. 
Worthington, Henry R., 226. 

Charles C, 393. 

high-duty engine, 393. 

duty of (Unwin), 376-385. 

plunger-pump, 132. 

sinking-pump, 294. 

tank-engine, 255. 



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